2.8 THE BASIS FOR THE USE OF EUPHEMISM
2.8.1 Euphemism and taboo
The source of euphemisms and the motivation for their use can vary. However, there is a general tendency that euphemisms are motivated by different taboos in society.
Maḓadzhe (2010:181) defines taboo as “the avoidance among a particular group of people, of particular actions or words for religious or social reasons, a Tongan word meaning forbidden.” He further explains that a taboo is a strong social prohibition or ban which relates to any area of human activity or social custom declared as sacred and forbidden. The breaking of a taboo is usually considered objectionable or abhorrent by society. Maḓadzhe (2010:181) states that in present-day discourse, taboo is synonymous with words, such as ban, disallowance, inhibition, interdiction and prohibition.
In essence, linguistic taboos are nothing but forbidden words and expressions - words and expressions that must not be used or spoken. In most instances these words are used to insult people, describe sex and body parts and their functions. It is
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for this reason that euphemisms are a convenient way in which to express words that are forbidden or that must not be used or spoken.
Every culture has its own topics that are forbidden and should not be talked about directly. Maḓadzhe (2010), quoting Salami and Awolowo (2006:2), maintains that what may be taboo in one language may not be so in another language as taboos are defined by culture. Many words that are taboo in African languages are expressed in the normal everyday English. Educated African people will avoid using some words in their mother tongues and use English instead because the English words are acceptable. As an example Maḓadzhe (2010:181) explains that it is taboo to say “murundo” in Tshivenḓa while it is acceptable to use “urine” as its English equivalent.
Pesola (1999:21) acknowledges that topics which become taboo usually concentrate on a few specific areas in society. He emphasises that there is a lot of variation between different cultures according to how strongly they feel about, and react to, the topic in question. A complete list of typical tabooed subjects, based on the studies by Andersson (1986:79) and Mencken (1982: 355-367), are the following:
Death
Love, sex, prostitution and unconventional sexual behaviour, such as incest
Human body and bodily functions: physical differences and mental handicaps
Women, menstruation and pregnancy
Ethnic, sexual and other minorities with lower prestige
Animals - often mythical and dangerous animals, like bear and wolf
Certain words relating to religion, such as “God”
Names and kinship words
Professions with lower prestige, including undertaker and janitor
Aspects of war and prison
Alcohol, drinking and drugs
Toilets, doctors, hospitals and nursing homes for the elderly.
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Many of the items listed above are there because they represent what people are simply afraid of. Ullman (1962:205) states that seminal works divide taboos into three categories "according to the psychological motivation behind them.”
Fear has motivated different taboos concerning the speaking the names of certain supernatural beings; among others are God, the devil - and names of certain animals. Hott (2012:27) suggests that the taboo underlying euphemistic references to God emerge from both respect and fear. He uses examples, such as the Lord, the King of Kings and the All-Mighty to illustrate his argument. Maḓadzhe (2010:183) believes that linguistic taboos play an important role in promoting and preserving the status of chieftainship in African languages. In Tshivenḓa one is not allowed to call a chief by his/her first name as to do so would be tantamount to undermining his/her image and authority as a chief. Maḓadzhe (2010:183) argues that the chief is respected because s/he is the link between the tribe and its ancestors or gods.
Calling the chief by his/her first name is an unbelievable insult for which the culprit could pay a fine in the form of money or cattle. A chief is to be called either by his/her praise name or totem. Examples of praises in Tshivenḓa - as outlined by Madadzhe (2010:183), include the following:
Tshidadamuhali: You are a fearsome hero.
Mbilalume: You are a male rock rabbit.
Vhaṋevhamavu: Owner of the soil/land.
Tsha u fuka natsha u a dza: You are everything.
Paradoxically, euphemistic references to the devil are friendly and humorous in an attempt to make the devil look more familiar and less frightening. Hughes (2000:44) lists a few examples, such as ‘Old Nick’ and ‘Lord of Flies’. As for animals, examples include bear, lion and tiger that are often referred to by using euphemistic references. In Africa, for instance, the lion is referred to as ‘the king of the jungle’ and in various cultures names of animals are used as praises and totems, especially referring to chiefs. As examples to support his argument Maḓadzhe (2010:184) identifies these praises and totems in Northern Sotho:
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Sebatasamariri: The beast of prey with a mane.
Tau’ a Tswako’: The lion of Tswako.
Kolobe: Warthog.
Tau: Lion.
Nare: Buffalo.
Direct reference to unpleasant topics is avoided. Such delicate topics include death, disease, physical and mental defect and criminal action. The expression ‘passed away’ is generally used today in most political and social situations to refer to death.
According to Hughes (2000:45), death is often referred to as a "metaphorical journey in comforting variants and traditional forms such as…passing on, going to one’s Maker [and] joining the majority." Other less-dignified ways of referring to death include ‘resigning one’s being’, ‘moving into upper management’ and ‘no longer eligible for the census.’
Sex, certain body parts and their functions and swearing fall under the category of propriety. People make use of ingenuous ways to avoid making reference to going to the toilet even when they are with friends or other acquaintances. Furthermore, movies and television, for example, often present instances of women politeness when women often say in restaurants that they need to ‘go and powder their noses’
or that they ‘need to freshen up’ when the need to use the toilet arises. Hughes (2000:46) adds that there are also a number of different ways to refer to having sex, including ‘sleep with’, ‘go to bed with’ and ‘make love’ rather than direct reference, depending on culture. As far as swearing is concerned, people often use ‘minced oaths’. These expressions are based on profanities, but the profanities have been changed to remove the inappropriate characteristics of the original utterance. Among the most common expressions are ‘freaking’ for fucking, ‘gosh’ for God, ‘heck’ for hell and ‘darn’ for damn. Maḓadzhe (2010:184) concurs with Hughes (2000) when saying that swearwords abound in English and have been taboos since times immemorial. The ‘f-word’ and ‘b-word’ are still taboo and for one to use them would mean that one lacks manners or upbringing. Swearing of this kind is also not encouraged in Tshivenḓa; as in English, the use of obscenity in Tshivenḓa leads people to think that one is uncivilized, immature, cruel, disrespectful and sometimes simply an imbecile. Veith (2003:1) suggests that swearing is ‘an affront to anyone with dignity, self-respect and intelligence.
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