Chapter 2 Literature Review
2.4 Agricultural extension
2.4.2 Extension models
Five different extension models will be described in this section. Each of the models will be linked to extension approaches that can be applied when using the particular model. The implications of using a specific model and the way this will impact on the relationship between farmers and extension workers will also be discussed.
2.4.2.1 The linear model: Transfer of technology
The linear model shows agricultural extension research centres as the source of technological innovation, which the research institutions they give to the extension organisations who, in turn, will deliver the technological innovations to the farmers (Röling 1995b). The basic function of extension in terms of the linear model is to make certain that the farming community has a sufficient amount of high-quality knowledge on agricultural technology (Dexter 1986:121). The technology transfer approach is commonly referred to as the linear model since it takes on a linear relationship involving researchers, extension workers and farmers (Sulaiman and Hall 2001). Technology transfer uses the top-down approach, were the
46 researcher passes on information to the extension agency, and the extension agency provides the farmer with the information. The farmer is only a recipient.
The linear model does not take into consideration the innovations from farmers. The extension worker is the authority on knowledge and has the duty of transferring the knowledge to farmers. The extension worker is seen to have all the solutions to the farmers’
problems and the farmers are regarded as not being capable of comprehending their situation, and it is believed they cannot come up with any meaningful solutions. Extension workers need to have certain approaches and methods that will enable the effective delivery of technology (Dexter 1986:121; Röling 1995b; Sulaiman and Hall 2001).
The approach to be applied by extension workers for this model is the training-and-visit approach. This approach uses the diffusion of knowledge from extension workers as they visit farmers who, in turn, will share with other farmers (Röling 1995b). According to Van den Ban and Hawkins (1996), the training-and-visit approach seeks to bring change in production technologies that are used by farmers, by having extension workers transferring technology from research institutions to farmers. This approach only makes use of knowledge/technology from the research institutions, and extension workers transfer this knowledge to farmers; thus, a top-down approach. Extension workers make use of various methods for this approach.
The above model, together with its associated approaches and methods, does not consider farmers as having valuable knowledge which they can share with extension workers.
Farmers are appreciated to be fountains of indigenous knowledge that has accrued over generations (Hart and Vorster 2006). Indigenous knowledge may be shared and used to improve farming practices. It may also be used by extension workers to understand the farming practices used by farmers. They could then try and improve such practices without introducing new farming practices which the farmers may not necessarily adopt. Farmers need to be active participants in problem solving as they can contribute their indigenous knowledge to find solutions. The advisory model takes a different stand on the role of the farmers, and involves them in problem solving.
2.4.2.2 The advisory model
The advisory model views farmers as active problem solvers with the capacity of looking for advice from extension workers when they fail to solve a problem (Havelock in Röling
47 1995b). The advisory model is applied in terms of farmers who have already achieved a high level of competence and who are capable of recognising their own problems (Department of Agriculture 2005). Röling (1995b) views this model as being driven by the farmer. Farmers learn by improving their problem-solving ability through problem and opportunity definition.
The farmers also learn by adopting the introduced technology given by the extension workers that would have come at the request of the farmer (Röling 1995a).
The advisory model views farmers as capable of seeking out assistance from extension workers who will only visit farmers upon request. Farmers are already aware of the problems they have and need specific advice from the extension worker. Upon receiving the advice, farmers will then adopt the technology as discussed.
Through the sharing of knowledge between farmers and extension workers, the advisory model brings together different ideas that may be discussed as people try to come up with a suitable solution. Both tacit and explicit knowledge may be shared, since tacit knowledge may be transferred to explicit knowledge. The use of this model will require the capturing of indigenous knowledge, which the farmers have, and the transfer of tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge. The available knowledge that is shared and captured may also be shared with other farmers and extension workers who might be experiencing similar problems. The model recognises the role that the farmers can play in problem solving and appreciates the knowledge that farmers have.
2.4.2.3 The participatory model
The participatory approach focuses on the capacities of farmers to influence the decision- making process and the ability of the extension organisation to organise farmers into groups (Black 2000; Department of Agriculture 2005). Farmers are grouped to identify the needs and main concerns, to plan extension projects and to implement and evaluate such projects (Department of Agriculture 2005).
The need to encourage farmers to participate is a result of the understanding that the socioeconomic and ecological circumstances of farmers are multifaceted, varied and risk prone (Farrington 1998). Farmers are individuals who operate in varied conditions and circumstances, and from these situations, they have different farming experiences. The participation of farmers will enable them to contribute their own insights to extension projects. The participatory approach has the following broad principles:
48 Community participation and involvement – according to the democratic principle, clients should participate in decision-making that will affect them.
Participation will encourage ownership and strengthen the clients.
Needs-based development – project identification will be done based on the identification, assessment and prioritisation of the needs of the community/farmers.
Coordinated extension and advisory services – coordination is necessary with the many available service providers to ensure quality and to stick to the norms and standards. Provinces have the mandate to coordinate and link the service providers to the farmers.
Monitoring, evaluation and accountability – the criteria for monitoring and evaluation need to include as much evidence as possible. There is a need to set indicators for inputs, activities, participation, client reactions, knowledge gain, attitudinal change, practice adoption, and impacts on social, economic and environmental factors (Department of Agriculture 2005).
The Participatory extension approach (PEA) tools that will enable participation through the model are Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Action Research (PAR). In terms of the PRA, the following will take place: analysis, planning, action, monitoring and evaluation. These elements are part of the participatory approach. The PAR will enable both farmers and extension workers to generate knowledge regarding their projects and the way to improve the project situations. In terms of PAR and the participatory model, farmers are encouraged to become active participants in the farming activities within which they are involved. These two tools allow farmers to become active participants in solving problems and making decisions. Learning is another important aspect between farmers and extension workers. The learning model (below) is one such model where learning between farmers and extension workers is encouraged.
2.4.2.4 The learning model: Agriflection model
The learning model is learning-centred, and it focuses on learning taking place in the stakeholders of agricultural extension, namely farmers, extension workers, research institutions and other stakeholders (Worth 2006). The focus on learning in the case of farmers and extension workers will enable the adoption of a culture of learning that will be maintained by continuous reflection, which will enable farmers to engage with scientific
49 enquiry thus generating knowledge which is testable and shared (Worth 2006). According to Van den Ban and Hawkins (1997), farmers learn through their own actions or experience, by observing other people’s actions and by discussing cause and effect, while the learning is driven by the farmers’ initiatives.
The learning model emphasises the importance of learning that takes place for all the stakeholders. This requires their ability to be reflective as either an individual or group.
Through the process of reflection, people will share, learn and gain new knowledge on problem solving. There is need for effective participation by all stakeholders to enable the learning to take place (Van den Ban and Hawkins 1997; Worth 2006). There are approaches and methods that encourage learning to take place.
The PEA allows learning with the following tools: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) and Participatory Action Research (PAR). The PRA tool is concerned with learning, analysis, planning, action, monitoring and evaluation (Chambers 1997). While the PAR involves people, generating knowledge is concerned with the stakeholders own situations and how such situations may be changed. Both tools require farmers to be active participants in solving their problems. Through such processes they become learners and develop knowledge that they can share with others, especially with extension workers and research institutions (Chambers 1997).
The learning model allows a partnership between all stakeholders and sharing of knowledge that enables learning to take place among stakeholders. The model draws from the knowledge that stakeholders have and makes it crucial that the knowledge shared needs to be captured for it to be of benefit to other stakeholders.
Except for the linear model, the extension models that have been discussed so far show acknowledgement that knowledge exists within both farmers and extension workers. Such knowledge may be exploited when sharing is allowed to take place and may be captured for the benefit of others. Through sharing, people learn, while the captured knowledge may be taught to others, which allows learning to take place. The availability of knowledge that has been demonstrated by some of the extension models calls for the need of extension organisation to be able to manage this knowledge properly as the knowledge may have huge benefits to both the work of extension organisations and of farmers.
50 Knowledge management thus becomes a crucial aspect for all extension organisations since it has huge benefits that may accrue to the organisations and the farmers. Through knowledge management, extension organisations may be able to fully realise their goal and have a huge impact on the livelihoods of the farmers and the economy of most developing countries.