LITERATURE REVIEW
2. INTRODUCTION
2.7 THE IMPACT OF HIV/AIDS
2.9.1 Gender-related Conceptual Definitions
2.9.4.4 Factors Associated With Women's Vulnerability
According to Gupta (2000: 5-6) there are SiX different factors associated with women's vulnerability:
Firstly, there is a culture of silence. This means that women must submit to men.
Secondly, women are expected to be ignorant about sex and passive in sexual relations.
This results in women not being informed about risk reduction or, even if informed, makes it difficult for them to be proactive in negotiating safe sex.
Thirdly, there is the traditional norm of virginity preservation for unmarried girls. It increases young women's risk of infection because it restricts their ability to ask for information about sex out of fear that they will be thought to be sexually active. Virginity puts women at risk of rape and sexual coercion in high prevalence countries. This is due to the myth that having sex with a virgin cleans a man of infections. Perhaps this belief arouse because of erotic imagery surrounding the innocence and passivity associated with virginity.
• Incultures where virginity is highly valued, research has shown that some young women practice alternative sexual behaviour such as anal sex in order to preserve their virginity not knowing that it puts them at the risk of contracting the same, if not increased the virus. Young boys too, practice sodomy as an alternative to vaginal sex, believing the myth that HIV is only transmitted when you sleep with a female.
• The strong norms of virginity and the culture of silence that surrounds sex and access to treatment services for STIs can be highly stigmatizing for adolescent and adult women.
In many cultures, virginity is considered to be a feminine ideal. Using bartiers or non- penetration sex methods (ukusoma) as safer options presents a significant dilemma for women. Women remain at risk of contracting HIV because the secreted semen may accidentally penetrate the vagina and she can be infected thus.
A fourth factor is women's economic dependency that increases their vulnerability to HIV/AIDS.
The economic vulnerability of women makes it more likely that they will exchange sex for money or favours, less likely that they will succeed in negotiating protection, and less likely they will leave a relationship that they perceive as risky.
Fifthly, male power in the form of violence against women (both directly and indirectly) contributes to women's vulnerability to HIV. Physical assault, violence, and fear of abandonment all act as significant barriers for women who have to:
• Negotiate condom usage,
• Discuss fidelity with their partners or
• Leave relationships that they perceive to be risky.
Another important dynamic of the spread of HIV/AIDS is the relationship between violence, risky behaviour and reproductive health. An inseparable relationship between gender, sexuality and HIV/AIDS exists. Individuals who have been sexually abused are more likely to:
• Engage in unprotected sex
• Have multiple partners,
• Trade sex for money or drugs.
2.9.4.5 Factors Associated With Men's Vulnerability
Gupta (2000: 5 - 7), further provides factors associated with men's vulnerability as follows:
An important question remains how the unequal balance of power in gender relations actually increases men's vulnerability to HIV infection, despite or rather because of their greater power.
There are various factors associated with men's vulnerability:
Firstly, men are expected to be more knowledgeable and experienced about sex. This puts them, particularly the young men, at risk of infection because such norms prevent them from seeking infonnation. Fear of admitting their lack of knowledge about sex protection causes them to experiment with sex in unsafe ways and at young age to prove their manhood.
Secondly, it is a commonly held myth that a variety in sexual partners is essential to men's nature as men. This factor seriously challenges the effectiveness of prevention messages that call for fidelity in partnership or reduction in the number of partners.
Thirdly, there is the norm of masculinity; men are socialized to:
• Be sexually dominating over women.
• Be self reliant,
• Not to show emotions and
• Not to seek assistance at times of need or stress.
Lastly, manifestations of traditional notions of masculinity are strongly associated with a wide range of risk-taking behaviour. Emphasis on sexual domination over women as a defming characteristic of malehood contributes to homophobia and stigmatization of men who have sex with men. The fact that sex between male partners is a risky behaviour that contributes to the spread of HIV/AIDS does not help such stigmatization of homosexuals.
A United States' Survey revealed that young men who adhere to traditional views of manhood were more likely to report:
• Substance abuse;
• Violence;
• Delinquency; and
• Unsafe sexual practices.
The United Nations Special Session on HIV/AIDS (2001:1) revealed that men, especially young boys are vulnerable, too. Social nonns reinforce their lack of understanding of sexual health issues at the same time celebrating promiscuity. This vulnerability is further increased by the likelihood of engaging in activities such as substance abuse (i.e. alcohol, drugs etc) and opting for types of work that can entail mobility and family disruption(i.e.migrant labour or military).
Expectations of invulnerability associated with being a man runs counter to the expectation that men should protect themselves from potential infection and encourage the denial of risk. Stigma and fear force men to have sex.