LITERATURE REVIEW
2.7 Gender
2.8 Age
"I saw a programme on TV, and then I started to realise that this wasn't right like I thought it was" (Berliner & Conte, 1995:372).
Numerous studies have explored the impact of age and developmental factors on children's disclosure of their rape experience(s). With regard to patterns of disclosure, there is considerable research that reveals age-related differences in the dimensions of intent and detail. The literature suggests that disclosure by younger children tends to be vague (Alaggia, 2004). In Akal's (2005) study, the mean age of the sample was 10.1 years. All the child victims in Akal's (2005) study disclosed purposefully, which is consistent with the results of previous studies which note that older victims are more likely to engage in purposeful disclosure (Collings et al., 2005; Faller,
1989; Sorenson & Snow, 1991). Preschool and young school-age children appear more likely to disclose accidentally and in response to a precipitating event (Sorenson & Snow, 1991).
Behavioural disclosures identified by sexualised behaviour and inappropriate statements were also quite common (Alaggia, 2004).
Keary and Fitzpatrick (1994) noted developmental differences in the willingness to disclose, with older children displaying a tendency to disclose more often than younger children
(regardless of whether or not there had been a prior informal or formal disclosure). Similarly, Smith et al's. (2000) study revealed that an older age at the time of the first rape incident was significantly predictive of disclosure within one month. According to the results of Smith et al.'s (2000) study, each additional year of age in children is associated with a 1.11 fold increase in the odds of disclosure within one month following the rape incident. For example, the odds of a 17- year-old rape victim disclosing within one month of the rape incident are 2.84 times greater than those for a 7-year-old rape victim disclosing in the same one month period following a rape incident (Smith et al., 2000). Smith et al. (2000) also found that younger victims were more likely to delay disclosure than older child victims. Research carried out by the London Family Court Clinic (1995) indicates that younger children, due to their immaturity and lack of
experience, are often unable to recognize the inappropriateness of the perpetrator's behaviour, and therefore do not disclose immediately. Smith et al. (2000) suggest that one explanation for the more rapid/less delayed disclosures of older child-rape victims is that they may be more aware of the societal standards that govern sexual behaviour and therefore better able to
recognise the magnitude of violation that rape represents. Thus, Smith et al. (2000) argue that it can be expected that those children who are aged 12 and older would not delay disclosure of their rape experience(s) as they are in the age range associated with pubertal onset and the development of sexual awareness. Likewise, Herman (2001) believes that it is the onset of puberty that often leads child victims to disclose intrafamilial sexual violation that had been going on for some time. In addition, Smith et al. (2000) notes that older children, because of their greater social involvement outside the home, may have more opportunities to disclose than younger children.
Notwithstanding the above findings, other researchers have found that younger children are more likely to engage in rapid disclosure following rape, with older children being more likely to delay disclosure. Hershkowitz et al. (2007) notes that the 7- to 9-year-olds in their study were much more likely to disclose promptly than the 10- to 12-year-olds. Hershkowitz et al. (2007)
reasoned that this was possibly because the older children were more aware of social norms, and therefore were more likely to feel embarrassed and ashamed about their 'taboo' sexual
experiences. Furthermore, older children are able to understand the consequent disruption of their families should they disclose, and therefore may consciously choose to keep the assault a secret (Smith et al. 2000). According to Bussey and Grimbeek (1995) these developmental trends possibly reflect the fact that children learn to inhibit their disclosure as they get older.
With regard to patterns of disclosure there is considerable research (Bona, 1996; Bussey &
Grimbeek, 1995; Keary & Fitzpatrick, 1994; Paine & Hansen, 2002) that reveals age-related differences in the dimensions of intent and detail. Paine and Hansen (2002) maintain that purposeful disclosure may be inhibited in children who are developmentally immature, or delayed in younger children due to limited knowledge of social norms and behaviours that constitute sexual violation. Alaggia (2004) suggests that younger children (under the age of 6) are least likely to disclose purposefully and that developmental factors may account for young children's inability to disclose purposefully. Goodman-Brown et al. (2003) highlight that
although younger children's lack of knowledge may inhibit their ability to disclose purposefully, it also inadvertently facilitates the disclosure of their sexual victimisation. As young children (aged 4 and below) are unaware that abusive sexual activity is not condoned and have minimal
verbal skills, they are likely to disclose the rape unintentionally through acting out the sexual activity in which they have been made to engage. Alaggia (2004) elaborates that children aged between 4- to 7-years old, while likely to appreciate the notion of a secret and have an associated desire to keep a secret, often lack the cognitive competence and social experience required to appreciate that indirect comments are likely to alert adults to the possibility of their inappropriate sexual victimisation. Bussey and Grimbeek (1995) found that children in the middle childhood age range (7- to 9-year-olds) are significantly more likely to have their sexual victimisation detected (accidental) by others because, unlike younger children, children in the 4- to 7-year-old age range are more effective in regulating disclosure as they are more selective in their verbal comments. Lastly, older children (aged 10 and above) are more likely to be aware of the abusive nature of their sexual experiences and are thus more likely to be motivated to disclose their victimisation in a purposeful manner (Alaggia, 2004).
Regarding detail (the amount of information that is included and elaborated upon), older children report significantly more information than younger children. Keary and Fitzpatrick (1994) propose that younger children forget the detail of the abusive incidents more readily than older children and therefore require more concrete 'prompts' to help them remember. Although a review of the literature reveals that younger children's disclosures are less detailed, Bona (1996) has questioned whether this reflects a true developmental difference or simply a difference in style of the interview techniques used. There are several possible explanations for the
differences in the relationship between age and children's patterns of disclosures. These differences can arise from a single influence, or through the combined influences of linguistic, cognitive, social, and emotional developmental factors.
Age at the time of disclosure may not only influence how a child may tell (purposeful disclosure versus accidental) or when a child will tell (immediate disclosure versus delayed disclosure), but also influence the response a child may receive from the disclosure recipient. Ullman (2003) found that young (below 10 years of age) female child-rape victims who disclosed to their mothers reported receiving more positive reactions than older (above 10 years of age) female child-rape victims. Moreover, adolescents (children aged 13-years-old and above) reported receiving less support from parents/caregiver figures and relatives than younger children
(children aged 13-years-old and below), but greater support from friends (Ullman, 2003).
Sauzier (1989), Arata (1994), and Kellogg and Hoffman (1995) concluded in their research studies that there is no consistent relationship between age and disclosure. Alaggia (2004) believes that what can be concluded is that children, regardless of their age, when disclosing rape have much less power due to their age and are likely to face much greater potential hazards associated with telling others (for example, breaking up their family or losing their relationship with one or both of their parents).