1. Research Methods
3.2 Historical Background
Foucault argues that “homosexuality is not necessarily a modern formation because while there were previously same-sex sex acts; there was no corresponding category of identification” (Jagose, 1996, p. 10). In her book, ‘Queer Theory’ Jagose (1996) aims to situate queer theory in the history and evolution of sexuality and sexual categories. Jagose (1996) further draws on Foucault’s argument that same-sex sex acts were frowned upon by civil law and from religious points of view. They were regarded as highly contagious.
These acts were regarded as sinful and loathsome as individuals identifying as a homosexual were identified as a species. According to Jagose (1996) it is difficult to pinpoint the exact inception of it all.
In the year 1897, Magnus Hirschfield, a German neurologist founded the Scientific Humanitarian Committee (SHC). This committee was responsible for the establishment of the concept of a ‘third sex’. The aim of this body was to give recognition to the
‘congenital nature of Homosexuality’ (Jagose, 1996, p. 23). There was a need to formerly introduce a non-conforming gender identity. Magnus Hirschfield integrated and developed on Karl Ulrich’s model. He understood homosexuality as a ‘third sex’ - a combination of physiological components of femininity and masculinity. The SHC dauntlessly emphasised the non-toxic nature of homosexuality and how unnecessary criminalisation based on it was. Karl Ulrich was the very first researcher to formulate a scientific theory based on homosexuality in the years 1864 to 1865 (Kennedy, 1997).
Being a homosexual himself, spurred him on as a lawyer who was dismissed due to his sexual orientation. This got him researching and becoming the first researcher to formulate a theory on homosexuality.
Later in 1929, Lily Glibe established the Glibe Memorial Methodist church in San Francisco in the United States of America (USA). The church aimed to create a fellowship of worshippers which incorporated the needy. By the 1950s, the congregation
30 had dwindled but the church continued to run on an endowment from the Glibe Family Trust. By the early 1960s, the church had established the Council of Religion and the Homosexual (CRH). This was a fundamental turning point in history, a church in support of homosexuality. By 1966, Glibe Memorial, under the pastorship of Reverend Cecil Williams, continued to be the voice of the marginalised communities and transformation by openly supporting gay and lesbian initiatives. According to Skyler (2008), Glibe Memorial became one of the most famous liberal churches in all time and gained support from celebrities and stars like Maya Angelou, Oprah Winfrey and Bill Clinton, to name but a few.
Stryker (2008) goes on to state that by the 1960s and 1970s this period was referred to as
“The big Science period of transgender history” (Jagose, 1996, p. 93). During this period a youth orientated rebellion began resulting in it becoming the most militant phase of the transgender movement as transgender people were readily rioting and canvassing for social change as illustrated in the pictures below.
Figure 5: The Stonewell Riot and The Compton Riot (newsweek.com)
The 1959 Coopers Coffee House riot in Los Angeles saw police, during their routine arbitration, requesting transgender people to produce identity documents (ID) which matched their sexual orientation (Stryker, 2008). In retaliation, transgender people rebelled and resisted by throwing high heels at the police. Additionally, in 1965, Dewey,
31 the owner of a restaurant and coffee bar, refused to serve anyone wearing non-conformist clothes which resulted in the Dewey Riot taking place in Philadelphia with transgender people, lesbians and gays taking to the streets in protest. In 1966, the Compton Cafeteria riot in San Francisco occurred when the manager became frustrated with some noisy drag queens that were not buying anything and called in the police. The drag queens retaliated by throwing a cup of coffee into the face of a policeman and later all the drag queens beat up the policemen with heavy heels, purses and bottles (Miller, Mayo & Lugg, 2018). This signified the beginning of the gay liberation with individuals being encouraged to be bold and come out, thereby claiming their proper identities (Msibi, 2014; Piantato, 2016).
However, by the 1970s popular culture was slowly undergoing a transformation. Unisex fashion was now quite common, women wore more masculine clothes and men could wear their hair a little longer without being frowned upon (Stryker, 2008). The general culture was transforming. People were now also more confident about their political status and did not hesitate to take to the streets in protest. By the 1990s, Judith Butler was boldly challenging the nature of identity. Her Queer theory argued that gender was ever changing and came up with the idea that gender was fluid (Butler, 1999).
Figure 6: Some Gay Liberation Riots in the United States Coopers Donut Coffeehouse Riot in 1959
Los Angeles Deweys Riot in 1965 Philadelphia
Comptons Riot in 1966 San Fransisco Stonewalls Riot in 1968 New York
LGBTQ RIOTS
32 Within Africa, same-sex relations are even less tolerated. However, this did not mean that sexually diverse identities were free from prejudices and becoming victims of violence (Jobson, Theron, Kaggwa & Kim, 2012). In Willard Wallers’ (1932) famous book “The Sociology of Teaching” he categorised homosexuality as something contagious. Wallers went on to warn against having homosexual teachers as they might be a negative influence and encourage heteronormative learners to follow the path of homosexuality. It is evident that in this era homosexuality was viewed negatively, almost like an abomination (Msibi, 2014).
In many African countries homosexuals and lesbians are reluctant to be open about their sexual orientation (Reygan & Francis, 2015). These areas are still very influenced by cultural laws and ideologies. Of the 54 African states, only 32 acknowledge sexually diverse identities (Human Rights Watch, 2019). According to Msibi (2011) evidence confirming same-sex relations depicted in Bushmen caves is another confirmation that same-sex relations have been in existence for a long, long time. During the Gold Rush in the year 1886, migrant laborers were attracted from all around South Africa. Men travelled to the ‘City of Gold’ (Gauteng) in search of better opportunities for themselves and left their families behind. Working on these mines came with a price as the migrant workers lived in compounds, in isolation, away from wives and families. To fill these voids men resorted to having a marriage that was known as an ‘inkotsane’ (young miners who were ‘married’ to older miners and expected to perform wifely duties) (Msibi, 2011, p. 64). These young men, called ‘skesanas’ (transgender men) who were effeminate in nature were then expected to have sexual relationships with older men, filling in for their wives and performing wifely duties (Msibi, 2011, p. 65; Pushparagavan, 2014).
The 1960s and 1970s saw Africa in its entirety becoming decolonised and moving towards independence (Pushparagavan, 2014). South Africa was in a political shift.
LGBTQI activists capitalised on this opportunity to join in the struggle and identify with the mass of people experiencing oppression and exclusion. According to Van der Merwe, (2015, p. 1) in the 1980s there was a secret club called “The Phoenix Society”. It was an LGBTQI club. Sexually diverse people looked forward to having a night out at these