3.1. What is Africa (n)?
3.1.2. Homogeneity
Nevertheless, one would still maintain there is a sense in which an African (read a black person)1 is marked off from the Asian or the European or the American.
There is a certain Africannes about the culture and religious beliefs and practices which can be so recognised. Only let us consciously find out how and to what extent African countries and African people have changed, lest we waste time preparing to evangelise the Africa of 1800, which no longer exists (Pobee
1997:24).
Even within the field of theology, one expects to find a plurality of African theologies rather than one modality of African theology that purports to address all conditions of homo Africanus. It is for this reason that we have addressed the African theologies of liberation as African theology, African Women's theology and Black theology of South Africa (see, Chapter 4).
This diversity makes the task of doing theology more difficult. It calls for careful correlations and assessments in the quest for an authentic theology that will speak to the particular conditions of homo Africanus effectively. It is for that reason that this study wishes to assess Mugambi's call for a change of paradigm in African theology, from liberation to reconstruction. The study is cautious with the difficulty or complexity that has been caused by the presence of diversity in Africa. This point is clearly spelt out by Musimbi Kanyoro with regard to African women's theology when she delivered her keynote speech to the Pan-African Conference of The Circle of Concerned African Women Theologians {Hereafter, Circle) when she said:
From the beginning, The Circle's Concerns have been multi-religious, reflective of the religious plurality of our continent. Thus, The Circle also seeks to promote a dialogical approach to religious and cultural tensions in Africa by practically working together with all women who are deeply concerned for peace, justice, equality and development of our continent ...we are professors, lecturers, students, pastors, church workers, medical and legal experts. We come from all walks of life, but we are united by being concerned with theology on this continent (Kanyoro
1997:10f).
overlook the reality of, and aspiration for, homogeneity in the African experience (Mugambi 1989b: 5).
The homogeneity of Africa has been identified through various sociological and cultural factors, which are peculiar to Africa. This is what Pobee (1997:24) refers to when he says that there are certain Africannes about the culture and religious beliefs and practices, which can be clearly recognised. In other words, there are certain traits that make an African distinct from an American, a European, or an Asian. Mugambi, (1989b: 5) points out the idea of family and kinship as social institutions that have continued to hold an important place in Africa. He further details the concept of the family in Africa, including relationships, which extend far beyond the "nuclear family" of father, mother and their children. Unlike European singularity, the clan "is the family and most Africans still think of themselves in the context of this extended relationship" (Mugambi 1989b: 5). Mugambi however fails to see the importance of the concept of hospitality, which is unique to Africa, especially when a comparative study of the concept is done.
Mugambi (1989b: 6) quotes Walter Rodney who emphasizes that what has commonly characterized Africa in "recent history is its political and economic exploitation." Writing in 1972, during the Cold War, Rodney was alluding to how Europe was "continuously under developing Africa." Curiously, Africa is still marginalised in the New World Order, as research has shown. For example, Neo-colonialism, which the New Oxford Dictionary defines as "the use of economic, political, cultural or other pressures to control or influence other countries, especially former dependencies," remains a strong feature of the New World Order. Whereas Britain, France, Spain and Portugal were the main perpetrators of colonialism in the nineteenth and twentieth century, the United States of America has emerged as probably the largest neo-colonisers through the wholesale export of Western culture, technological trends and trans-national corporations, the threat of social reconstruction remains. This, ironically, unites Africa in defeat, in its quest for identity and empowerment within socio-cultural domains.
Maluleke describes the mix that constitutes the New World Order as including:
The disintegration of the USSR, with its numerous direct and indirect consequences, the demise of apartheid, the reunification of Germany, the moves to create a 'unitary' Europe, and the multiplication of 'democratic' governments in several Third World Countries (1996a: 38).
75
Similarly, Laurent Magesa (2000:158) captures the main feature of globalisation, which is commonly used to capture the essence of the New World Order, as being Western domination, characterised by "Euro-American ethnocentrism and dominance," a phenomenon which has a huge impact upon Africa. With regard to globalisation, Oduyoye (2001:19) laments "the replacement of cross-continent slavery with keeping Africans in Africa to slave for the building of European economies." She says, "with globalisation, Africa's economic marginalisation seems complete." For the "only way of survival offered to the people of the continent is to continue to use their natural resources to benefit Europe." Oduyoye's analysis is echoed by Magesa (2000:152) when he illustrates this view by drawing from Africa's enormous debt crisis, which forces African countries to submit to the will of its mainly Western creditors. The result, says Magesa (2000:152),
"are chains of poverty and dependency reminiscent of slavery and colonialism." These views parallel Mbiti's observation on the "rapid revolution" that is changing the rhythm of Africa:
Without warning and without physical or psychological preparation, Africa has been invaded by a world revolution. Now a new and rapid rhythm is beating from the drums of science and technology, modern communications and mass media, schools and universities, cities and towns. Nothing can halt this rhythm or slow down its rapid tempo. The man (sic) of Africa must get up and dance, for better or for worse, on the arena of world drama. His (sic) image of himself (sic) and of the universe is disrupted and must make room for the changing 'universal' and not simply 'tribal' man (sic) (1969: 216).
With regard to the "return" of Christianity to Africa in the light of this "revolution," Mbiti can state:
Christianity from western Europe and north America has come to Africa, not simply carrying the Gospel of the New Testament, but as a complex phenomenon made up of western culture, politics, science, technology, medicine, schools and new methods of conquering nature. The Gospel by its very nature is revolutionary;
but Christianity in its modern return to Africa is the main carrier of all the elements of this world revolution (1969: 217).
Within these analyses, we realise that African homogeneity is, to a certain extent, a product of wrong purposes and wrong motives. In this view, one may feel duty bound to question whether there is a genuine homogeneity after all. In other words, is there any genuine theo-social homogeneity within Africa? If the forces of neo-colonialism were completely erased, would we still talk of African homogeneity? What is the "Africannes"
that Pobee (1997:24) talks about? Do we have African homogeneity without foreign attachment? Is Africa united in defeat?
76
Mugambi's (2003:113) contention that Africa's cultural diversity has been exaggerated at the expense of its cultural unity can be explained by addressing the Ubuntu philosophy, which, in my considered opinion, best describes African homogeneity. Augustine Shutte (2001:9) observes that the concept of Ubuntu, (which is a Zulu word for humanness), was developed over many centuries within traditional African culture, a culture which was pre- literate, pre-scientific and pre-industrial. Ubuntu was thus originally expressed in the songs, stories, customs and institutions of the African people. As will be demonstrated, in this section, Ubuntu is an expression that shows the essence of African culture, a culture which is initially perceived as in pure unadulterated form, untarnished by Western cultural
"corruption" or market economical drives and so on.
Ubuntu is a Zulu and Xhosa word for humanness and encompasses all that makes one human; in Setswana it is botho; in Shona unhu, in Ndebele ubuntu; Venda vhuthu; Kikuyu umundu; and in Kiswahili utu, to name a few other African language variations. A related Swahili concept Ujamaa (familihood) was translated into a political philosophy by Julius Nyerere during his presidency (1961-1985) (Olson 1991: 275). Often, Ubuntu is described in a broad way that embraces human life in an existential way. In particular,
Ubuntu includes all the qualities and traits which go into making a person fully human and include the willingness and ability to respond positively to the Creator (Baartman 1980: 77).
As an African philosophy, Ubuntu expresses the African sense of community. That is, instead of, "I think, therefore, I exist" (cogito ergo sum) of the French Philosopher Rene Descartes, the African asserts "I am because we are," or "I am related, therefore, I am"
(cognatus ergo sum) (cf. Gathogo 2001:21). This compares with Mbiti's summary of the philosophy underlying the African way of life thus: "I am, because we are; and since we are, therefore I am" (1969: 108). The Akan of Ghana would say, "I belong by blood relationship; therefore I am" (Healey and Sybertz 1996: 62). Indeed, this parallels with the concretisation of the Being (Sein) as Being-with in the "Dasein" Analytic in Martin Heidegger's Philosophy of Being (Heidegger 1993:117-125).
Mbiti appears to be building on the Ubuntu philosophy when he writes:
Only in terms of other people does the individual become conscious of his (or her) own being, his (or her) own duties, his (or her) privileges and responsibilities towards himself (or herself) and towards other people. When he (or she) suffers, he (or she) does not suffer alone but with the corporate group; when he (or she) rejoices, he (or she) rejoices not alone but with his (or her) kinsmen (or
77
kinswomen), his (or her) neighbours and his (or her) relatives whether dead or living. When he (or she) married, he (or she) is not alone; neither does the wife (or husband) 'belong' to him (or her) alone. So also the children belong to the corporate body of kinsmen (or kinswomen), even if they bear only their father's name. Whatever happens to the individual happens to the whole group, and whatever happens to the whole group happens to the individual (1969: 108).
The strength of Ubuntu, as an African philosophy, in our modern African society, is seen in Shutte's contention that since some "of the old customs would be a betrayal" (Shutte 2001:10) to the spirit of Ubuntu in our contemporary society, it is important for us (in Africa) to find a way of living Ubuntu in a society where the dominant cultures are both European and African; and where many other cultures from other parts of the world exist together. And in view of this, it is worthwhile to consider that some of the customs that can be a betrayal today includes the saying that "we are the people and others (referring to other communities) are not." It would amount to adding an insult to an injury if black Africans target one another alongside ethnic lines. Similarly, there is a need to acknowledge that Africa is like "my father's house in which there are many mansions" (cf.
John 14) - which simply means that Africa is a home for various categories of God's children who ought to appreciate one another. Failure to acknowledge this reality would encourage unnecessary and uncalled-for tensions. By acknowledging and appreciating the diversity of the racial or the ethnic realities of Africa, Africa would prove to be the shinning star of the world as it would set good examples of peaceful co-existence, especially in the era of globalisation.
As a spiritual foundation of African societies, Ubuntu creates a unifying vision or worldview enshrined in the Zulu Maxim Umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu, '"a person is a person through other persons" (Shutte 1993:46). This Ubuntu concept is also found in other African communities, even though there are different vocabularies and phrases that are used to describe it. It will suffice to illustrate through a few examples. The Kikuyu idiom, which says, Mundu rii mundu ni undu wa andii, means that, "a human being is a person because of the other people." The Swahili have: Mtu ni watu which means that: "a person is a person because of other persons." The same can be said of the Sotho idiom, which says, Mothe ke motho ka batho with a similar translation to those of other African communities.9 This African aphorism articulates a basic respect and compassion for
9 John Mbiti (1969: 108) builds on this theme when he contends that, "to be human is to belong to the whole community, and to do so involves participating in the beliefs, ceremonies, rituals and festivals of that community."
others. It can be interpreted both as a factual description and as a rule of conduct or social ethic. It describes human beings as "being-with-others" and prescribes what "being-with- others" should be all about. As such, Ubuntu has a certain African-ness and religious commitment in the welfare of fellow human beings that is manifestly African in essence.
Indeed, while Western humanisms tend to underestimate or even deny the importance of religious beliefs, Ubuntu or African humanism is resiliency religious (Prinsloo 1995:4).
To the Westerner, the maxim "a person is a person through other persons" has no obvious religious connotation. It can simply be interpreted as a general appeal to treat others with respect and decency. The maxim, however, has a deep religious meaning within the African tradition (Shutte 2001:10). When Julius Nyerere coined his Ujamaa concept (from Jamii - meaning family), he was talking from the perspective of Ubuntu. He saw Africa as one family and the whole world as an extended family. In this same spirit, the entire clan is seen as a family. As Mugambi writes, "most Africans still think of themselves in the context of this extended relationship" (1989b: 5).
Another distinctive quality of the Ubuntu philosophy is the African emphasis on consensus. In other words, Ubuntu underscores the importance of agreement or consensus.
Indeed, African traditional culture has, seemingly, an almost infinite capacity for the pursuit of consensus and reconciliation (Teffo 1994:4). Democracy in the African sense does not simply refer to majority rule, since it operates in the form of discussions geared towards reaching consensus (cf. Busia 1967:28). This view is clearly captured by Mugambi when he writes that, "the traditional court would appreciate the views of every participant, and weigh the opinions of everyone irrespective of social status" (1995:132).
This agrees with admonition of Jesus, to treat one another equally regardless of social standing (cf. Matt. 23, Matt. 6:1-4). Equally, decisions are reached through consensus, as there is no voting. Whenever there are "irreconcilable difference, decision is postponed until a consensus emerges" (Mugambi 1995:132). Consensus building rather than dividing the people along the lines of "winners vs. losers" is expressed well in Kikuyu, twT hamwe ('we are together'); Swahili, tuko pamoja ('we are together'); Simunye ('we are one') and slogans such as "an injury to one is an injury to all" (see Broodryk 1997:5 - 9).
Despite Ubuntu's articulation of important values such as respect, human dignity and compassion, it can however be exploited to enforce group solidarity and therefore fail to
79
safeguard the rights and opinions of individuals and the minority (although this is a Western concept). True Ubuntu requires an authentic respect for individual rights and values and an honest appreciation of diversities amongst people. Whatever the argument, Ubuntu, best illustrates the African homogeneity which can be exploited for the good of the African church in the twenty-first century.
Ubuntu, as Teffo (1994a) rightly argues, pervasively serves as a cohesive moral value in the face of adversity. For although the policy of apartheid greatly damaged the overwhelming majority of black South Africans:
There is no lust for vengeance, no apocalyptic retribution... A yearning for justice, yes, and for release from poverty and oppression, but no dream of themselves becoming the persecutors, of turning the tables of apartheid on White South Africans...The ethos of Ubuntu...is one single gift that African philosophy can bequeath on other philosophies of the world (Teffo 1994a: 5).
Maphisa agrees with Teffo when he states that South Africans are slowly re-discovering their common humanity:
Gone are the days when people were stripped of their dignity {ubuntu) through harsh laws: Gone are the days when people had to use ubulwane (that is, animal like behaviour) to uphold or reinforce those laws. I suggest that the transformation of an apartheid South Africa into a democracy is a re-discovery of ubuntu (Maphisa 1994:8).
As part of Africa's essential cultural heritage, Ubuntu is clearly in need of revitalisation in the hearts and minds of African people generally, so that its ethos can be truly the "one single gift that African philosophy can bequeath on other philosophies of the world"
(Teffo 1994:5). An acknowledgement that every culture has its dark and dangerous side as well helps the Ubuntu philosophy today to absorb the strength of the European cultural emphasis on freedom in the individual idea of choice; while at the same time build on the strength of the African cultural emphasis on the idea of communality - that is, "persons depend on other persons to be persons." In turn, both African and European cultural emphasis should seek to learn from Christ's ideal hospitality which goes beyond race, ethnic, status, gender, area of origin or any prejudice (Luke 10:29; 10; 27; Mark 12:31).
This acknowledgement helps in producing a synthesis that is true to the ideal way of modern living.
On the other hand, it is critical to underline the fact that in our modern times, Ubuntu is undermined by the violent ethnic and political conflicts that have plagued tropical Africa.
In view of this, application of the philosophy of Ubuntu to the South African situation may look too abstract or rather idealistic in the sense that it may be seen as if it has portrayed a heaven-on-earth kind of situation. For if such philosophy is applicable, how can one explain the cases of rape, robbery and insecurity in South Africa? How can one explain the re-emerging negative effect of ethnic nationalisms (as was, at one time, propounded by Mongosuthu Buthelezi of Inkatha Freedom Party in the 1990s and its consequent fundamentalist attitude) in the political domain even after it had died with the demise of apartheid? And even within the rest of Africa, how can one explain the spirit of Ubuntu amidst the Rwandan genocide of 1994, the religious clashes between Muslims and Christians in Nigeria, the current Somalia conflict, the Liberian genocide, the political assassinations in the post-colonial Africa and tribalism which is the single major ideological threat facing Africa following the demise of apartheid? In a continent, plagued by war, hunger, genocide and disease, can Ubuntu be seen as the panacea for all these challenges? Conversely, it can be argued that these concerns can be addressed effectively by first adhering, strictly, to the ancient ideals of African hospitality, which portrays every
"neighbour" as part of the extended family, and hence treats him or her with compassion and understanding - a phenomenon that is compatible with Christ's hospitality, as can be demonstrated in the Christian Testament..
Nevertheless, from Mugambi's post-liberation works, it is clear that the new definition of what constitutes Africa and/or an African goes beyond race, creed, gender, ethnicity or nationality and possesses a commonality of spirit for all the peoples in Africa. It works towards the noble goal of building and rebuilding Africa for the present generation, and those to come. It is therefore a continent where theo-social prejudice is denied room to define Africa, a continent where people of all walks of life are called upon to rebuild the wall, as was in the case of Nehemiah (2:18).