2.2 Overview of literature
4.1.3 Human trafficking as a human security issue
Discussions that are concerned with policies aimed at addressing human trafficking in Africa generally address them from the international ‘common’ perspective and view problems like human rights violations, as a consequence of migration and as an issue of organised crime (UNESCO, 2008: 10). This approach does offer valuable insights on and possible solutions for the matter at hand, but it lacks insight on the other core causes of human trafficking.
Human trafficking is not only a serious violation of human rights but also a crime against humanity that poses recurrent threats to human security (Tsugami, 2012: 3). Human security and human rights are likewise deeply connected. Both are concerned with identifying a fundamental set of universal concerns that span poverty and violence. The concept of human security is related theoretically to the liberal school of thought in international relations and security studies which focuses on individuals as key subjects of security (Remacle, 2008: 5).
Trafficking in persons is a particularly atrocious criminal activity where criminals deliberately seek out the weakest and most defenceless members of a society in order to manipulate them for personal gain. They do this by frequently exploiting conditions of poverty or forced migration due to civil unrest or the collapse of economic systems (Clark, 2003: 247). When looking at human security, it is important to include trafficking in persons as a distinct manifestation of globalization. The growth of trafficking in humans has reached such a magnitude that it presents a significant human rights crisis in countries of origin, transit and destination (US State Department, 2009: 8). Certain people are specifically at risk for being exploited because of their specific vulnerabilities (Clark, 2003: 248). Economic, political and social factors have all contributed to the formation of an intensified status of
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insecurity among certain segments of a population. Traffickers have also ensured greater success for themselves through identifying and targeting individuals who are vulnerable (Clark, 2003: 247).
Traditionally, security threats were assumed to come from other states. In the Post-Cold War era, it has become gradually evident that security comprises far more than matters of national defence. Non-military threats such as poverty, hunger, disease and the trafficking of persons equally threaten people across borders (Watawala, 2007: 3). Human trafficking therefore, affects human security in the way that it contributes to the spread of disease, demographic decline, humiliates women, deprives children of education and leads to the destruction of communities (Tsugami, 2012: 3). Security threats have not been limited to a national level but rather spread across international levesl which is visible in the globalization process as well (Tsugami, 2012: 5). While human security focuses on the provision of basic material needs and realization of human dignity, its focal point is also on emancipation from oppressive power structures. It is not only about protecting people from violent threats but also empowering then to cope with situations such as meeting basic needs like food, shelter, healthcare and education (Uddin, 2014: 20).
A human security framework is one where states are expected to preserve both the security of their domestic borders as well as the security of the persons living inside these borders (Tadjbakhsh, 2005: 5). It is the responsibility of the states to protect their citizens from any harm and conflict whether it be internal or external. Citizens are entitled to the enjoyment of a wide range of rights and be able to live their lives with a sense of dignity and absence of fear, as such states have an obligation to ensure that citizens enjoy this (Tadjbakhsh, 2005: 5).
A human security framework will therefore provide the basis for the specific policy and institutional changes that are necessary to protect vulnerable populations from the risk of being trafficked in their countries of origin as well as in countries of transit and destination (Clark, 2003: 248). Human security is a dynamic and practical policy framework for addressing widespread and cross-cutting threats facing governments and people. This perspective also focuses attention on threats that are not captured by the poverty agenda of the conflict agenda such as global crime and in this instance human trafficking. In its most basic form, human security represents freedom from fear and freedom from want. This term is people-centred and not threat centred (UNESCO, 2008: 3). It therefore consists of physical safety, economic well-being, social inclusion and the full exercise of human rights.
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Human security is a term characterised by the following: it is universally applicable, its components are interdependent, it emphasizes prevention and it is people centred (UNDP, 2009:7). The focus is on the security of the individual and the community, not the state and its territory. Human security approaches still regard states as playing a fundamental part in securing the safety of citizens, but also assert that non-state actors play equally important roles in securing individuals (Koser, 2005: 21). The discourse that arises from this approach is primarily concerned with human-induced problems such as migration, widening economic inequality and security concerns affecting individuals and communities like trafficking.
Human security thus views the individual not only as an object of security, but also as a subject of security. If empowered to act, individuals can provide for their own security (Potgieter, 2013: 3). Human security thus differs from other perspectives through its focus on the downside risks that can threaten the well-being of all people, both affluent and poor. This conceptual framework also offers a more complete set of criteria for assessing the impact of globalization on human well-being, encompassing as it does socio-economic aspects and personal safety from the consequences of violent conflicts. These aspects are essential for people to enjoy human security (Fukuda-Parr, 2003: 167).
By knowing that threats to human security differ significantly across and within countries, and at different points in time, the application of human security calls for an assessment of human insecurities that is comprehensive, context specific and preventive (UNGA, 2013: 3).
Such an approach helps focus attention on current and emerging threats to the security and well-being of individuals and communities. By placing people and the conditions in which they live at the centre of analysis, the human security concept focuses not only the physical safety of the affected individuals, groups and communities but also addresses the root causes behind human trafficking (Uddin, 2014: 20).
The concept that is key to this framework is human security. This refers to the protection of fundamental freedoms that are essential in life. It means protecting people from critical and pervasive threats and situations by creating political, social, environmental, economic, military and cultural systems that together give people the building blocks for survival, livelihood and dignity (Tadjbakhsh, 2005: 10). The advancement of human security gives rise to more immediate and tangible results that comprehensively address the root causes behind the threats. It identifies priorities based on the actual needs, vulnerabilities and capacities of Governments and people. These elements combined help to strengthen actions taken by Governments and other actors in support of human security.
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Human security is concerned with human development and human rights for the protection of the vital core of human life. While a concept like human rights focuses on absolute levels of deprivation, human security focuses on the risks of sudden change for the worse (Fukuda- Parr, 2003: 170). Risks of sudden change for the worse, either as a result of financial market contagion or the spread of disease is aggravated in the age of globalization. Security threats not only affects the poor but also the affluent (Fukuda-Parr, 2003: 171).
Human trafficking has been seen by states as mainly a problem of state security and therefore states try to securitize their borders through border enforcement to prevent irregular migration including the trafficking of persons. In the process of securitization if state security is prioritized above that of individuals their security is at stake (Uddin, 2014: 20). Uddin argues that destination countries treat human trafficking primarily as a security threat to their borders.
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CHAPTER FIVE: HUMAN TRAFFICKING IN THE CONTEXT OF
GLOBALIZATION
5.1 Introduction
Although human trafficking has a long history, the widening inequality at the global level which encourages millions of disadvantaged people to migrate and the advances of transportation technology have extended human trafficking to an unprecedented scale. In addition to factors such as poverty, gender inequality, conflicts and unemployment, globalization and its related end products such as technology, economic liberalization and privatization have aided in increasing and facilitating the growth of trafficking in persons.
This research will look at the relationship between globalization and conditions of global labour. It will examine the linkage between conditions of global labour and human trafficking of women, children and men as extreme forms of commodification and exploitation of human labour including sexual labour.