CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.2 M EANING IN THE U RBAN S CALE
2.2.1 Image of the City
Language and meaning can be given to the urban environment. Barthes held that the city is a general language consisting of relationships and oppositions of elements, with the meaning of the city to be found in the perception of the readers (Krampten 1979: 32). This view was enforced by the work of Lynch where parts of the city such as the node or landmark were seen as texts. In this regard, the meaning of the city was derived from its functions and how the relationships between the various elements were structured. Beyond Barthes theory, Choay proposed 3 separate semiological theories based on different historical contexts. The meaning of the medieval city was to promote human contact; the renaissance system of meaning was based perceptual qualities, with space being primarily aesthetic. Lastly the industrial revolution system was a time where space lost its meaning and simply became a functional instrument of circulation (Krampten 1979:
32). As such urban meaning is generated by its function as well as territorial, psychological and cultural behavior and it is the role of the designer to integrate these elements. According to Fauque, urban meaning is based on the ways in which people perceive the city which coincides with Lynch’s preoccupation with the elements of the city. This method looks at the arrangement of objects based on notions such as “central vs. peripheral, close vs. far or dense vs. clear. This proposes that a structure such as a tower would be influenced by the qualities of objects and space around it as well as its own placement within these conditions. If the tower were to move, it could for example lose prominence and thus its meaning could change. This can be described through the example of the Arc de Triomphe.
Figure 10. The Arc de Triomphe at the centre of the Champs Elysees (source: www.bookitnow.com/paris-tours-when-in- paris-be-enchanted)
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Figure11. Arial sketch of the royal axis of Paris (Vale 1959: 20)
The Champs Elysees runs along an axis which penetrates the length of the city of Paris. The Arc de Triomphe is situated at the centre of this axis and is given prominence due to its position along the axis.
However, if the Arc were moved to either side of this axis, the object would be perceived in a very different way. When considering the meaning given to urban design, the example given here of Paris is of interest as the meaning given to the powerful axis has changed with society and the culture over time. The grand axis first served as a reminder to the public of the hierarchy of the monarch, and it was here that grand imperial processions took place. However, having undergone a variety of socio-political and cultural changes the axis has been redefined. With the advent of the Grand Arch of La Defense and the Pyramid of the Louvre, the axis is now a symbol of high culture and capitalism (Vale 1959: 20).
Figure 12. The Grand Arch of La Defense (source: www.concorde-hotels.com/en/hotels/paris/la-defense.aspx)
25 Lynch states that citizens of a city have personal associations with different parts of the city and that the image an individual has will be based on memories and meanings gathered over time (Lynch 1960: 1). A clear mental image of the city scape is given both practical and emotional importance to the individual subject in the city. Lynch states that on a practical level, a legible city which creates a clear mental image, will allow for easy access to important points such as police stations or hospitals. Beyond this practicality, a clear image may also allow for a sense of emotional security as fear is associated with disorientation (Lynch 1960: 5). Orientation and legibility thus form an integral part of a clear image. The environmental image is the result of process between the subject and the object. The subject observes the object or environment and gives meaning to the image through his own perceptual input which may be his own prejudices or past experiences (Lynch 1960: 6). As such the mental image of a reality may be different for different observers (Lynch 1960: 6). To create a coherent image amongst individuals requires a common group of similar socio- political, geographical, historical or cultural backgrounds (Lynch 1960: 7).
For an image to have value in a city, Lynch states that the image of the building or city should allow the individual to operate successfully within his environment (Lynch 1960: 9). The mental image should easily guide a person to where they need to be. Lynch describes the quality of how successfully an object achieves this clear image within the mind of an observer as imageability. This identifiable and powerful image may be achieved through colour, shape and arrangement or even through a sharp relationship to the other senses. Lynch states that as the development of an image is a two-way process between the observer and the observed, the image can be strengthened by training the perceiver or reshaping ones surroundings (Lynch 1960: 11). In the South African context with specific reference to the justice and Police systems which had such a negative yet powerful image in the apartheid era, architecture and urban environment provide an opportunity to retrain the perceptions of the public by reshaping the environment.
According to Lynch, in order to create the powerful clear public image which is necessary for the creation of a successful city, the contents of the city should be divided up into various elements which come together to form the whole image. These elements are: Paths, edges, districts, nodes and landmarks. Paths are the channels along which the observer moves such as roads and walkways. How these paths are arranged or related will give hierarchy to parts of the city or is the primary point from where the city is observed. Edges are boundaries between various elements within the urban realm. A boundary may suggest impermeability or may encourage interaction and may define outlines. Districts are large sections of the city which are recognizable as having a common identity or character. An observer may have a strong
26 image of a city based on the different zoning such as a cultural precinct or municipal precinct. Nodes are generally intensive focal points which the observer enters such as where paths or transportation routes end or intersect giving rise to a point of importance or rather a point which creates a powerful mark on the observer’s image. Landmarks are similar yet are not entered by the observer; they are an external physical element which is easily identifiable (Lynch 1960: 48). It is the combination of the qualities of these various elements which gives meaning within the urban environment and develops the mental image of the observer.