CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.2 IMPLICATIONS OF THIS STUDY
In this section I look at the intricate, intertwined relationship between espoused theory and theory in action in order to see how teachers can integrate theory and practice and thereby design a learning environment that can contribute to that integration.
Conflicts and dilemmas occur when theories in action and realities of practice clash and this may initiate change and development of teaching (Argyris & Schön, 1974). Essential improvements to the quality of teaching and learning are more likely if teachers have an understanding of the link between espoused theory and theory of action, and can assess whether their espoused theories are congruent, or incongruent, with their actual practice (Kane, Sandretto, & Heath, 2002). In this regards, Baxter and Lederman (1999) state that PCK is not limited to what a teacher knows about teaching a specific topic but it also refers to “what a teacher does” in the classroom, and the reasons for the types of actions that he/she takes in relation to teaching a specific topic. Therefore, it is important to establish an explicit link between teachers’ knowledge and classroom practice and explore factors that facilitate or impede teachers’ enactment of PCK in the classroom. Teachers
appear to hold personal conceptions of teaching and learning that presumably have an influence on how they teach, which also influence their learners’ approach to learning and in turn affect learning outcomes (Kember, 1997; Trigwell, Prosser, & Waterhouse, 1999). Academic developers therefore often work on the assumption that enhancing learners' learning by altering approaches to teaching requires that teachers’ conceptions of teaching be changed as well (Ho, 2000). A change in approach will not happen without a change in conceptions of teaching (Kember, 2009). Some teachers think of teaching as being about imparting information and transmitting knowledge to their learners; these teachers are best characterised as having teacher-centred/content-oriented approaches to teaching. Others conceive of teaching in terms of helping students to develop conceptions, and of helping to facilitate learning. These are said to have student-centred/learning-oriented approaches to teaching.Notwithstanding, Thiessen (2000) contends there are two elements that can assist with the integration of theory and practice, namely, reflective practice and development of professional knowledge. Thiessen maintains the reflective practices orientation concentrates on skills which help teachers think through what they have done, are doing or are about to do.
5.2.2 Professional development
If change is to be sought at the chalk face, then teacher pre-service preparation programmes and more critically, ongoing professional development programmes for in-service teachers in South Africa would have to focus more on the development of content knowledge, specifically conceptual knowledge. A deep understanding of the content and how to teach it was shown to be essential in the teaching endeavour. This study further showed that curriculum materials have the potential to impact classroom practice. However, these need to be accompanied by training sessions which address the development of pedagogical content knowledge rather than purely providing implementation or examination support. South Africa already has a number of such initiatives to support teachers. An example is the various Provincial Education Departments’ professional development programmes. These programmes, however, need to be expanded. Furthermore, these programmes need to provide ongoing support over an extended period of time. In addition to curriculum resources, the value of human resources, like expert colleagues or mentors cannot be underestimated and these should form part of professional development programmes at a ward level.
The research on Lesson Studies (Lewis, Perry & Hurd, 2004) is one example where such programmes, which incorporate planning, doing and reflection with colleagues, have led to
successful teacher development. The findings of this study confirm that some experienced teachers are set in their instructional strategies and that these teachers need to learn how to engage in reflective practice in a supportive environment.
5.2.3 Resourcefulness
The resourcefulness of a teacher in preparation for a lesson delivery is also motivated and shaped by their PCK. A teacher like T5 who sees the need to produce and use colorful eye-catching resources in lesson delivery has a rich PCK. Unavailability of such resources is not a limiting factor to such a teacher. This is because they also have the ability to improvise using readily available and easily obtainable everyday materials. A teacher with a rich PCK will surely deliver irrespective of the learning environment. It has therefore been noticed that the view of the teacher is a reflection of their PCK and that such views may or may not translate into both lesson preparation and lesson presentation in the design process.
5.2.4 Learner autonomy/ creativity
Even though there was an indication of problem-solving the dominance of the teachers reflected in their incessant explanation of concepts did not allow enough time for leaners to solve problems with minimal guidance as suggested by Mawson (2003). The teachers observed employed instructional approaches that placed a strong emphasis on guidance of the student learning process in line with Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) and to provide learner comfort during problem-solving (Hansen, 1993).
5.2.5 Collaborative learning and problem-solving
Even though the problem-solving activity in design and technology has been seen as a potentially rich arena for collaborative learning (Hennessy & Murphy, 1999), this was not always the case in the lessons observed. T8 did not provide opportunities for collaborative learning among learners. He used orders such as: “Foster, why are you going there to look at her work? You sit down and do your own work. You wanna ask, you ask me!”. The seating plan was so regimented that each learner had to mind his/her own work. This was a serious hindrance to social constructivism since no opportunity was allowed for learner-learner interaction. In a situation where there was some kind of group activity (T5), such activities did not involve group interaction. Rather individual learners were called forward to solve problems on behalf of their respective groups while other group
members sat and looked on. The teacher who sees the design process as a step-by step problem- solving process is more dominating in his lesson delivery. Lessons were presented in steps to ensure that students understood every step of the way. This deprived many learners the opportunity to solve problems in their own way. The lessons were but a teacher centred interaction where learners get less opportunity to solve problems autonomously and collaboratively.