CHAPTER TWO
2.11.2 INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION
The traditional method of opening the floor to questions without preparation is
unsatisfactory. The learners should be briefed before the lecture on the kinds of questions they might keep in mind, even perhaps supply them with a few sample questions. An outline could be prepared by the speaker of important aspects of the lecture. The lecturer could pause at appropriate parts of the lecture in order to give the participants an
opportunity to reflect and note down any questions they wish to ask. It is useful to have a system prepared for referring difficult questions to an appropriate resource person.
2.11.1.5 Advantages
Advocates of the forum site social and educational advantages of these methods. John Studebaker (1935 cited in Galbraith 1991:283) argued that the forum is a means whereby one can redevelop the ability to discharge ones responsibilities as citizens of a
democracy, to learn while molding the new economic order. Bryson (1935 cited in Galbraith 1991:284), saw the forum as a method of dealing with controversial questions in politics, economics and public affairs. The strength of the forum is it allows all group members to be actively involved in the learning situation. The format provides formative feedback allowing all participants to recognize how they are communicating to others and what concerns are affecting the interaction. It allows participants to apply information to their own situations and let others know their opinions on common concerns.
2.11.1.6 Limitations
The limitation is that some comments that are relevant to individuals will be irrelevant to the majority. Secondly, in spite of the intended procedure intended to encourage
participation by all, a few can dominate a forum.
learning. The methods include assignments, computer assisted learning, learning contracts, experiential learning, practical, self-directed learning and projects. Some of these methods will be discussed below:
2.11.2.1 Projects 2.11.2.1.1 Presentation
Projects are appropriate for individual and group teaching. If a group project is set, account must be taken of each learner's social skills. Walklin (1991:58) contends that when a group leader is appointed, it should be borne in mind that successful leaders are more intelligent than other group members and self-confident extroverts. They have a high rate of participation in group discussion, to integrate group activity and to be task orientated. In the event of a snag, they suggest group co-operation and consensus. The procedure is the same whether the project is assigned to individual learners or a group of learners. Educators need to exercise greater circumspection in guiding individual learners in the selection of projects.
2.11.1.2 Advantages
The learner's task is to locate and organize the learning resources he requires. The individual project allows for variations in individual tasks and is flexible in timetabling and in the curriculum. This method trains learners in independent study and the use of their judgment. Feedback is individual and occurs after completion of the project. This method enables the learner to follow the sequence of the learning cycle; engaging them in an analytical approach to the problem; discussing the title and collecting data.
Learner's behavior has been grouped by Bloom (1956 cited in Walklin 1990:58) into cognitive, affective and psychomotor. The teacher can develop each of these abilities by means of project work. Projects can be set either as an individual task or a small group undertaking. The cognitive domain will embrace such processes as identifying key factors inherent in the problem, seeking information relevant to the problem and finding a solution to the problem. This domain also includes the ability to plan and implement a scheme of work and the ability to communicate the contents to other group members.
The affective domain provides for the development of latent aptitudes such as
perseverance, leadership and creativity and the ability to provide teamwork spirit. The psychomotor domain includes design work and practical work involved in working on assembling project components.
2.11.2.2 Assignments 2.11.2.2.1 Presentation
Assignments consist of writing an essay, a case study or a research project. An
assignment may have a more practical application. Students may be asked to produce a teaching aid or some piece of equipment relevant to their course.
2.11.2.2.2 Advantages
An advantage in producing media is that adults bring to their learning their own interests and skills, these may be used to the benefit of the learning process. There are many skills involved in assignment writing. Learners are engaged in an analytical approach to the problem; they collect data to construct an argument in response to the analysis; they plan a structure in which they reveal the results of their reflections and evaluations of the data collected; reaching conclusions and testing them against wider reality. The preparation of the written assignment is a method of learning and setting assignments is a technique of facilitating that learning.
The advantage of the educator setting the assignment is that they ensure that the questions cover the whole course and the standard of the questions asked is similar. The assignment constitutes a medium through which teachers and learners engage in dialogue.
Feedback is an important component of assignment writing. Tutors may use the Socratic technique of assessment whereby the strengths and weaknesses are highlighted by means of questions. Learners are enabled to reflect upon their own writing and reach
conclusions of their own. This may be more beneficial to their self-image and self-
esteem. The questions facilitate a continuous process of learning, didactic comments inhabit the learners from continuing to pursue ideas in the assignments they have written.
According to Jarvis (2004:180) the didactic method should play a less significant role in assessing assignments. The tick or cross is less useful and only serves as agreement or disagreement on the part of the tutors. Jarvis (2004:178) explains that assessment of assignments is a subjective process affected by handwriting, length and writing style. The other variable is that tutors may not be competent in assessing assignments.
2.11.2.3 Learning contracts 2.11.2.3.1 Definition
A learning contract is an agreement between the learners and the tutor. This contract covers a range of areas. A contract consists of five sections. According to Lindquist (1975 cited in Galbraith 1991:135) these include the learning objectives; learning resources and strategies; target date for completion; evidence of accomplishment and evaluation of the learning.
2.11.2.3.2 Presentation
This is a useful method of teaching but can become time consuming if the classes are large. The contract may be a written one or an informal agreement. If the contract cannot be kept, then it is the responsibility of the parties concerned to re-negotiate the contract.
Knowles (1986 cited in Jarvis 2004:180) supported this method because it enables adults to become self-directing in their learning. Knowles (1980) has outlined four basic
assumptions underlying the use of learning contracts about the adult learner. These include:
Their self concept moves from being dependent to being an independent self- directed human being.
They accumulate a growing reservoir of experience that can be used as a resource for learning.
- Their readiness to learn is linked with the developmental tasks of their life roles.
Their time perspective towards learning shifts from postponed to immediate application and from subject centeredness to performance based.
(Knowles 1980: 44)
This method recognizes learning as an individual process and learners have different experiences and motivations. Classroom teaching is not always an effective
individualized process.
2.11.2.3.3 Advantages
A learning contract according to Smith (1982 cited in Galbraith 1991:139) is a means whereby adults can individualize their learning, and reconcile their own individual initiative and commitment with the expectations of the school, employers and supervisors.
The flexibility of the approach makes it suitable for many learning experiences. The learner is in control of the learning process. Learning contracts allows the development of instructional design skills by the learner.
2.11.2.4 Self-directed learning
According to Heimstra (1991 cited in Jarvis 2004:184) self directed learning might be regarded as a teaching technique and a development from andragogy. Knowles (1991 cited in Jarvis2004:l 84) 'regarded self-directed learning as one of the manifestations of andragogy and a vital element in the understanding of self-directed learning.' This underlies the idea that the individual is an autonomous learner.
Candy (1991 cited in Jarvis 2004:184) has argued that" however free the leaner appears to be within the framework of an educational institution, there is still a residue of teacher influence so he distinguishes between autodidaxy and self-directed learning." Candy (1991 cited in Jarvis 2004:184) regarded autodidaxy as self-directed learning outside the educational institution in which the learner's autonomy is retained. The following are some of the characteristics of autodidaxy:
_ the leaner conceives goals and policies independent of pressure from others;
_ the learner exercises freedom of choice and action;
_ the learner reflects rationally;
_ and the learner has self mastery.
Candy recognized the threat of individual autonomy. It is only with distance education that the learner is free and autonomous. But distance learning institutions are very centralized and there in no genuine learner autonomy in this form of education either.
The learner is not free and autonomous since the curriculum is structured by the institution.
According to Rogers (1996) some learning episodes are aimed at a solution of a particular problem. Even if the learning is part of a long-term and developing interest, the
individual self-directed learning is directed towards a particular goal to be achieved. The learners' do not start with the simple and move to the more difficult. They tackle the problem at the level at which it occurs in their lives. Such episodes are aimed at
immediate rather than future application. Few attempts are made by the learner to draw general conclusions from the particular instance being learned. Once the situation has been resolved, the learner brings the process of investigation to a close.