32 The Records Continuum Model was used in the study to examine the contexts of records creation and capture. It assisted the study in answering how information culture affects the creation, capture and management of electronic records. Creswell (2013) states that when advancing a theory in research using mixed methods one has to state how it informs the quantitative and qualitative components of the research. In terms of the quantitative component of this study, the construct “creation and capture of electronic records”, as the dependent variable, was analysed via descriptive statistics while correlational statistics were used to analyse the relationship between this construct and the “information culture” construct. Context is of the essence in the Model, hence informing the qualitative component of this study. Creswell and Clark (2018) observe that a qualitative approach attempts to understand experiences occurring in a natural setting. Battley (2013) argues that viewing records through the lens of the Records Continuum Model allows them to be examined within the context of creation and capture.
The Model provides different dimensions in which records simultaneously exist thereby offering a context that allows one to identify the information culture of an organisation. Battley (2013) emphasises that the Model underscores the importance of gathering information about the entire context of records and the people making decisions about them.
Osanloo and Grant (2016) observe that the theoretical framework will dictate the data collection plan that is developed and illuminate information within the data, especially where the theory has concepts or constructs.
Each of the constructs can be used to structure the data collection and data analysis plan. The Records Continuum Model guides the data collection as the constructs derived from the Model are where most activities that inform and shape information occur in the organisation.
Cumming (2010) argue that those who criticise the Continuum do it on the basis that it focuses too specifically on “evidence” and does not emphasise the social, personal, historical and cultural values of records is also a misreading of the model. The term itself, “evidence”, is perhaps the problem. Although the Records Continuum Model provides a general framework for managing records, it could not specifically address the trust in records management as one of the questions addressed in this study. Therefore the model could not be used as a stand- alone model for the study.
33 the Records Continuum Model has informed the Assessment Framework. In the current study, the Framework was used to assess the information culture within selected parastatals’ electronic records management settings.
Oliver and Foscarini (2014) state that knowledge of the influences of information culture and how it affects the features of information objects and systems is a vital step towards a concrete understanding of the context in which those objects and systems are embedded. The Framework considers all the factors that affect the attitudes and values towards information according to the different cultural layers in the organisation. The Framework is depicted in Figure 2.3 below.
Figure 2.3: Information Culture Assessment Framework Source: Oliver and Foscarini (2015:17)
The Framework consists of three levels:
Level I comprises the factors that are deeply rooted in human beings and their social institutions and that are very difficult to change. At this level, the study asked: What values do employees of the parastatals accord to electronic records? How do these values impact ERM and shape information culture? A lack of understanding of these factors may hamper the ability to effect change or implement records management strategies (Upward, Reed, Oliver and Evans 2013). The respect or value accorded to information can be motivated by the need to keep records for evidence or accountability purposes. Oliver (2017) states that distinguishing the purposes for which records are kept is important because there is a significant variation in the understanding and readiness to carry out procedures. For example, people in different settings can behave differently. Although there may be international or local standards developed on records management, their effectiveness depends on how people value records. Information preferences can be considered in a broad category that can be associated with national cultural differences. This consists of the need for either explicit or implicit information in order to communicate successfully (Oliver 2017). Communication can be in a high or a low context. In a high context, communication is implicit in pictures and images, whereas in a low context, communication is explicit in text form. Information preferences will indicate what kind of information is created and what media are selected and consulted.
IT governance
Trust
Information-related competencies and awareness
of environmental related competencies
Values accorded to records, information preferences, languages requirements and
regional technological infrastructure.
34 Level II is placed in the middle of the triangle because training development will take into account the fundamental influences at the base. At this level, the focus is on people’s skills, knowledge, and experience in relation to the information. There are two perspectives to be considered here: literacies (information and digital literacy) and knowledge of relevant societal requirements. Information and digital literacy skills are important in today’s environment where technologies to access, create, use and disseminate information are at everyone’s fingertips without the need for an information professional to assist (Oliver 2017). The need for skills, knowledge and experience in digital literacy continues to increase. The basic information and digital literacy skills needed in the workplace include the ability to deal with information overload, different file formats, cloud computing, and very specific software (Oliver 2017). In terms of the relevant societal requirements perspective, people need to know the laws, standards and norms applicable in the environment in which they live. There is a need to assess employee competency skills and develop training programmes. The training programmes should take into account factors identified in Level I.
Level III consists of the information governance model in the organisation as reflected in the organisation’s IT as well as the trust in the organisation’s records keeping. At this level, the study asked how trustworthy the records keeping systems in these organisations are. The two factors at the apex of the triangle indicate that they are susceptible to change as long as they are approached with an understanding of the characteristics of the features identified at levels I and II (Oliver 2017). The concern at level III is corporate IT governance. The governance principles will manifest through IT policies, procedures and specifications for the overall information architecture and security considerations (Upward et al. 2013). The IT policies should take into consideration all information aspects. If the policies reflect IT interests only, they can have an adverse effect on the records and archival objectives.
The Information Culture Assessment Framework provides a new perspective on how to look at what McLeod, Childs and Hardiman (2011) acknowledge as “people issues” in records management. The issues emerging from the Framework include attitudes towards records keeping, values accorded to records, and trust in the information records keeping system. The principal focus of the Framework is on how people’s behaviour and their inherent values and attitudes may influence how information is created and managed. Through the Framework, the study sought to identify and explain issues of trust in records keeping in the parastatals. Thus, the Framework helped in explaining employees’ trust in relation to records keeping and the people who manage the records. The Framework provides a link between records management and information as it shows various elements such as information preference, records management competencies and trust in IT. It enables the analysis of what
35 influence the way individuals and groups in organisations behave and the assumptions they make concerning the information they create in their daily activities. In applying the Information Culture Framework as an assessment tool, organisations will realise what factors impinge on the achievement of their objectives, and might eventually be able to develop more appropriate and effective policies and strategies, targeted at specific aspects of their records management (Oliver and Foscarini 2014).
2.6.1 Studies that used the Information Culture Assessment Framework
While the information culture concept has been discussed before, this discussion took place in different disciplines. The studies in which these discussions took place were mainly about information systems (Ginman 1987), business performance (Ginman 1987; Travica 2005; Choo et al. 2008), knowledge management (Bergeron, Heaton, Choo, Detlor, Bouchard and Paquette 2013; Vick, Nagano and Popadiuk 2015), and information literacy (Crawford and Irving 2009; Lepik and Kannukene 2017; Widén and Karim 2017). Few studies focused on information culture and records management. The application of the Information Culture Assessment Framework is limited to the records management discipline. Svärd (2014) conducted a case study on information culture and records management in municipalities in Sweden and Belgium in which the Framework was used. The Framework was successfully employed and the author was able to determine the impact of information culture on records management.
Sundqvist and Svärd (2016) conducted a review of the literature on information culture and records management.
The authors concluded that information culture is used in different ways, that is, as an analytic and evaluative framework, explanatory framework and as a normative standard. Sundqvist and Svärd (2016) posit that most research on information culture focuses on general information. However, the authors also decry the lack of research on information culture and records management.
It is thus apparent that given the few studies cited above, the Information Culture Assessment Framework still needs to be investigated to further determine how it can be useful for records management. Svärd’s (2014) study focused more on the general purpose of the Framework. The current study focused on specific components of the Framework, that is, the value accorded to records and the trust in records keeping. Therefore, the study builds on what previous studies have done, focusing on the attitudes and values that employees accord to records management, and how trustworthy the records keeping systems in the organisations are. These two questions have not been addressed by previous studies.
36 2.6.2 Applicability of the Information Culture Assessment Framework to the study
According to Creswell (2014), Osanloo and Grant (2016), the theoretical framework serves as the structure and support for the rationale of the study, the problem statement, the purpose, the significance, and the research questions. It also provides a grounding base, or an anchor, for the literature review, and most importantly, the research methods. The theoretical framework informed the statement of the problem in Chapter 1. It identified a gap with regard to the factors that affect records management, namely, cultural and philosophical attitudes. The theoretical framework’s identification of the knowledge gap also justified this study. The framework informed the study questions on the attitudes and values that employees accord to records management and how trustworthy the records keeping systems in the organisations are.
This study regards Oliver and Foscarini’s (2014) Information Culture Assessment Framework to be more comprehensive and appropriate to the problem and population under study than other frameworks (or models) because it allows for a description and explanation of attitudes and behaviours that can be displayed by employees.
The Framework informs the quantitative component of the study. Neuman (2014) opines that a survey best addresses attitudes and behaviour hence the Framework informed the quantitative component of the study, that is, to measure the values accorded to records. The data collection instruments were thus also informed by the Framework. The instruments collected both narrative and numerical data to understand the complex issues of information culture and records management given that they comprise people, technical, and cultural issues.
The Information Culture Assessment Framework also informed the qualitative component of the study in that it sought to determine how the employees interact with records and the activities they engage in which, therefore, required one to look into the context. According to Chilisa and Preece (2005), a qualitative approach is a naturalistic inquiry because it places the researcher in a setting where the participants live/stay or work and who then attempts to make sense of, or interpret, the meaning that participants bring to a phenomenon. The constructs of the Framework were used as themes for data analysis. The aggregation of the findings relating to the three levels of the Framework helped address information culture and records management issues.
Although the framework assesses information culture, this study will inadequately identify activities and transactions from which attitudes and values can be observed. In this regard, it cannot be used as a stand-alone framework in this study and records continuum fills in this inadequacy. It should be noted that according to the authors, Oliver and Foscarini (2014) this theory was informed by a continuum in its formation.
37