P a g e | 65 The 1998 Act was deemed to be a fairly progressive piece of legislation with new features185, in particular the provision for an order by default, the emoluments attachment order and the attachment of a debt in the form of a garnishee order186.
P a g e | 66 maintenance officers has carried over to the 1998 Act and is expounded upon in Chapter 2, section 4(1)(a) thereof188.
In addition to the appointment of maintenance officers, both independently and
from the ranks of prosecutors, the 1998
Act places a legislative onus on the National Director of Public Prosecution to issue policy directives "establishing uniform norms and standards to be observed by public prosecutors in the performance of their functions as maintenance officers and building a more dedicated and experienced pool of trained and specialised maintenance officers189". The intention of the legislature in creating this onus is to ensure the consistent and uniform functioning of maintenance officers throughout South Africa in carrying out their duties.
Chapter 3 of the 1998 Act sets out the functions and powers of the maintenance officer in the investigation of maintenance complaints and thereafter the institution a maintenance enquiry190.
Upon the complainant approaching the maintenance court in order to lay a complaint, the maintenance officer is charged with the duty of investigating such complaint191.
Such investigation includes the obtaining of statements under oath from persons with information regarding the complainant192; investigating the identity and whereabouts of the alleged defaulter193; and gathering other information that is relevant for the purposes of an enquiry194. Upon completion of the investigation of the complaint the maintenance officer may institute an enquiry in the maintenance court should he or she deem fit195. The maintenance officer is empowered to enlist the assistance of a maintenance
188Maintenance Act (1998) Chapter 2; Van Zyl (note 19 above) 63.
189Maintenance Act (1998) Section 4(1)(b)(i) and (ii).
190Maintenance Act (1998) Section 6 and 7; L Pretorius ‘Step-by-step maintenance applications in the maintenance court’ (2004) De Rebus 36; Powers and functions of the maintenance officer were initially set out in Section 4 of the 1963 Act.
191Maintenance Act (1998) Section 6(a) and (b).
192Maintenance Act (1998) Section 7(1)(a).
193Maintenance Act (1998) Section 7(1)(b)(i).
194Maintenance Act (1998) Section 6 and 7.
195Maintenance Act (1998) Section 6(2).
P a g e | 67 investigator196. The powers and functions of the maintenance investigator shall be discussed in 4.1.3 hereunder.
In addition to the receipt and management of inquiries the maintenance officer does all the work usually done by a party's legal representative, including the offer of guidance to both parties when unrepresented197. The maintenance officer therefore carries a heavy burden in each maintenance matter before him or her; including the onus to represent the best interests of the child.
4.1.2 The Enquiry
Upon the completion of an investigation, the maintenance officer may institute an enquiry in the maintenance court as set out in section 6(2) of the 1998 Act198. Such enquiry shall take place before a judicial officer. The maintenance officer is entitled to subpoena any witnesses to give evidence during the enquiry and/or to produce documentary evidence relating to the financial position of the parties199. The maintenance officer is further required to lead evidence on behalf of the complainant when unrepresented.
It is important to note that in terms of South African law maintenance court proceedings deviate substantially from the ordinary criminal or civil proceedings200. An enquiry process is used in place of the trial process. The presiding officer therefore plays an active role in the proceedings, and is able to may subpoena documents, call witnesses as well as question witnesses. This approach allows the court to make up for any difficulties experienced by unrepresented parties in the presentation of their case, and further allows the
196Maintenance Act (1998) Section 7 (2).
197Grieves (note 1 above) 17.
198In most instances, although not prescribed by the 1998 Act, parties attend an informal enquiry before the maintenance officer. During this enquiry the maintenance officer interviews both parties and considers the financial position of the parties in relation to the complainant's claim. The maintenance officer attempts to negotiate settlement of the matter between the parties. In instances where settlement cannot be reached the maintenance officer sets the matter down for a formal enquiry.
199Maintenance Act (1998) Section 9(1); Van Zyl (note 19 above) 68 -73; Pretorius (note 190 above) 38. The enquiry procedure prior to that set out in Sections 9 to 14 of the 1998 Act can be found in Section 5 of the 1963 Act.
200Grieves (note 1 above) 7.
P a g e | 68 court to act in the best interests of the child, particularly where such interests may be clouded in a dispute where each parent has their own agenda.
An explanation of the enquiry process is set out in more detail in 1.1.4.1.3 above.
4.1.3 Maintenance Investigator
“Investigators are the “teeth” of the Act and the failure to appoint them renders the Act largely ineffective”.
Shereen W Mills201 The 1998 Act introduced the office of the maintenance investigator, which was not to be found in its forerunner202. The creation of this office appears to have had a prima facie positive impact on the existing maintenance system, ideally with the appointment of at least one maintenance investigator for each maintenance court. The introduction of this office is, however, too recent to fully judge the impact it has had on the maintenance system, particularly given that there was a substantial delay in implementing the appointment of maintenance investigators. Such delay resulted in no investigators being available from 1998 to 2002, leaving maintenance officers to carry out their own duties as well as those envisaged for the maintenance investigator203. However, since the appointment of maintenance investigators, it appears that some of the problems experienced by women and children in accessing basic human rights within courts have been greatly alleviated204.
The primary task of the maintenance investigator is to assist the complainant from the beginning to the end of a maintenance process by way of document analysis and collection of relevant information pertaining to the complainant's claim. The maintenance investigator is empowered to take statements from persons who may give relevant information concerning the maintenance
201Budlender & Moyo (note 2 above) 36.
202Maintenance Act (1998) Section 5(1) and (2).
203M Mamashela 'The court’s interpretation of Section 31 of the Maintenance Act 99 of 1998 and its predecessors' (2005) SALJ 236; Mthimunye (note 170 above).
204Mthimunye (note 179 above).
P a g e | 69 enquiry and is charged with gathering information on instruction from the maintenance officer about the identification, whereabouts, financial position and any other matters concerning the person liable to pay maintenance. The maintenance investigator is obligated to investigate all cases and obtain documentation and information required for the maintenance enquiry205. The maintenance investigator is therefore integral to the smooth running and finalisation of each and every maintenance enquiry.
The maintenance investigator's functions and powers are set out as follows206:- a) locate the whereabouts of a person for reasons stipulated in the Act
(including tracing of persons liable to pay maintenance and maintenance defaulters207);
b) serve or execute the process of any maintenance court;
c) serve subpoenas and summonses in respect of criminal proceedings for the failure to comply with a maintenance order;
d) take statements under oath or affirmation from persons who may be able to give relevant information concerning the subject of any complaint relating to maintenance;
e) gather information concerning the identification and whereabouts of any person legally liable to maintain the person mentioned in the complaint, the financial position of any person affected by such liability, or any other matter which may be relevant concerning the subject of the complaint;
f) gather such information as may be relevant concerning a request relating to an investigation outside of the existing jurisdiction of the complainant.
In light of the aforesaid powers and duties it is clear that the maintenance investigator has a pivotal role in assisting complainants in being prepared for an enquiry. Much hangs on the quality of the investigation completed by the investigator, and failure to adequately conduct the investigation could
205Maintenance Act (1998) Section 7; Grieves (note 1 above) 17.
206Maintenance Act (1998) Section 7 (2).
207Mthimunye (note 179 above).
P a g e | 70 jeopardise the enquiry and result in a negative outcome for the complainant and the minor children concerned.
4.1.4 Additional court orders
In terms of the 1963 Act, the following orders were available to the court when determining the outcome of a maintenance enquiry208:-
a) in instances where there was no existing order in force:-
(i) an order for maintenance may be made against the person liable to maintain in respect of the person liable to be maintained, in a specified sum sounding in money;
(ii) an order requiring the party liable to pay maintenance to make payment to the mother of the child in respect of laying in and birthing expenses incurred in connection with the birth of the child to be maintained;
(iii) an order requiring the person liable to pay maintenance to make payment of medical expenses on behalf of the person liable to be maintenance, or to register the person liable to be maintained as a beneficiary on a medical aid.
(b) where an existing order is in force:-
(i) may substitute the existing cash order;
(ii) may make an order substituting any existing order relating to the payment of medical expenses;
(iii) may discharge the existing order;
(iv) discharge the existing order.
In terms of the 1962 Act, the Maintenance Court was further empowered to make the following orders:-
208Maintenance Act (1963) Section 5 and 12.
P a g e | 71 (i) make no order;
(ii) grant an order by consent;
(iii) make provision for an Emoluments Attachment Order);
(iv) make a discretionary order relating to the costs of service of process;
(v) an order directing the parties, in the event that paternity is disputed, to submit themselves and the child concerned for blood tests in order to determine paternity of the child in question.
It is evident that the 1963 Act, unlike the 1998 Act, made no provision for default orders.
The 1998 Act makes provision for the amplification of the orders set out above; as well as introducing the order by default and civil execution.
The existing orders available to the court in terms of the 1998 are:- a) where no maintenance order is in force:
(i) the court may make an order against any person proved legally liable to maintain any other person in a sum sounding in money. In addition the court may extend this order to make compulsory a "stop-order" or similar method of payment on the part of the maintenance debtor's banking or financial institution.
Such order extends to the payment of medical expenses and registration as a dependant on the maintenance debtor's medical aid;
(ii) an order requiring the party liable to pay maintenance to make payment to the mother of the child in respect of laying in and birthing expenses incurred in connection with the birth of the child to be maintained.
b) where an existing order is in force:-
(i) may substitute the existing cash order;
(ii) may discharge such maintenance order;
(iii) may make no order.
P a g e | 72 In addition the Maintenance Court, in terms of the 1998 Act may make the following orders:-
(a) may bind a third party, such as a pension fund scheme, to make periodical maintenance payments on behalf of the party against whom a maintenance order has been made. This may be done only after hearing such evidence in support thereof, and in the event that it is not impracticable in the circumstances of the case;
(b) may grant orders by consent209;
(c) may grant a default order in instances where there is sufficient proof that the subpoena has been served on the defendant personally, and such defendant has failed to attend court210;
(d) may vary and set aside certain existing orders211;
(e) may make orders as to the costs of service of process212;
(f) may make an order pertaining to the paternity testing of a child to be maintained213;
(g) may authorise a warrant of execution214;
(h) and may issue an Emoluments Attachment Order215.
4.1.5 Extension of contractual duty
The 1998 Act specifically makes provision for the application thereof in respect of the legal duty of any person to maintain any other person, irrespective of the nature of the relationship between those persons giving rise to that duty216.
209Maintenance Act (1963) Section (d) above; Maintenance Act (1998) Section 17.
210Maintenance Act (1998) Section 18.
211Maintenance Act (1998) Section 19.
212Maintenance Act (1963) Section (f) above; Maintenance Act (1998) Section 20.
213Maintenance Act (1963) (g) above; Maintenance Act (1998) Section 21.
214Maintenance Act (1998) Section 27.
215Maintenance Act (1963) Section (e) above; Maintenance Act (1998) Section 28.
216Van Zyl (note 19 above) 61.
P a g e | 73 This extension of a contractual obligation to support another is directed at the common law duty of parent to maintain child, extending to such support as a child reasonably requires for his or her proper living and upbringing, and includes provision of food, clothing, accommodation, medical care and education217.
4.1.6 Civil execution
In terms of section 27 of the 1998 Act, a civil execution is no longer dependent on a criminal conviction, as per section 11 of the 1963 Act.
An order for civil execution in respect of arrear maintenance shall be enforceable against any person against whom a maintenance order has been made. Judgment shall be given for the amount outstanding plus interest thereon. Execution may be against property or the attachment of emoluments or attachment of any debt owed to the maintenance defaulter, which debt has remained unsatisfied for a period of ten days from the day on which the relevant amount became due218.
Despite the aforesaid amendments and innovations and the best intentions of the legislature there is still “evidence that women continue to struggle to access maintenance due to the inefficiencies in the system and lack of adequate resources and capacitation.”219 The logistical difficulties in maintenance courts mean that the maintenance system does not function effectively, and a fatalistic acceptance of flaws in the system compounds denial of rights to women and children220. There is a dire need for solutions addressing the problems inherent in the system. Prior however to suggesting methods for reform, it is necessary to canvas and understand the obstacles inherent in such system. Accordingly the deficiencies in the existing Act are addressed in more detail hereunder.
217Ibid.
218Maintenance Act (1998) Section 27.
219De Jong (note 98 above) 596.
220Van Zyl (note 19 above) 60.
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