2.2 Conceptualisation: school organisational culture
2.2.4 Aspects of organisational culture
2.2.4.1 Intangible aspects of organisational culture
According to Xaba and Janson (2013:128), intangible aspects form the basis of organisational culture. These aspects are described below:
2.2.4.1.1 Beliefs
According to Masuku (2011:63) beliefs being usually formed and shared by a group of people are considered acceptable and true by the group. Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2022) defines belief as “something that is accepted, considered to be true, or held as an opinion or something believed”.
INTANGIBLE ASPECTS TANGIBLE ASPECTS
Beliefs Convictions Philosophy Mission Vision
Aims and objectives Assumptions
Ethos Values Norms
Verbal manifestations
Language, stories, heroes and heroines, curriculum, rules and regulations
Behavioural manifestations
Rituals, ceremonies, traditions, discipline, leadership orientation and style
Visual manifestations
Facilities, symbols, school uniform
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Beliefs provide the basis for what people consider to be right or wrong, true or untrue, good or bad, and relevant or irrelevant about their school and its operation (Masuku, 2011:63). Xaba and Jansen (2013:128) conclude that “beliefs can be regarded as the principles or taken-for-granted presumptions about reality and represent shared explanations of people’s experiences” Ng’ang’a and Nyongesa (2012:211) contend that beliefs are derived and reinforced by experience and can be viewed as assumptions about reality. Therefore, as espoused by Peterson and Deal (2009:10), beliefs can also be perceived as how the world is understood by people and other people around them.
2.2.4.1.2 Convictions
Xaba and Janson (2013:128) contend that a group often shares convictions emanating from beliefs, which lay the foundation for behaviour in the organisation and form the basis of convictions. Alvarez (2018:33) opine that a conviction can be a feeling, idea, opinion, persuasion, sentiment or view and is something believed or accepted as true by a person.
In essence, convictions form the foundations of organisational culture and form the basis influences of organisational culture and e (Alvarez, 2018:33). For example, when teachers within the school are convinced that the school principal wants the teachers to continuously develop professionally, they will develop the interest to share such conviction with new teachers joining the school.
2.2.4.1.3 Philosophy
An organisational philosophy is the set of concepts, principles, or techniques that individuals within an organisation develop for the organisation. The organisational philosophy is created from individual’s experiences in determining which people, objects or events positively or negatively realised and achieved their individual and organisational desires, fears, and priorities (Xaba & Janson, 2013:129). Schein (2004:13) points out that “a group’s actions toward stockholders, employees, customers, and other stakeholders is guided by a philosophy, which he defines as the broad policies and ideological principles”.
According to Xaba and Janson (2013:129) a philosophy deals with problems concerning life, truth, holiness, goodness, and values. Lunenburg (2011:18) assert
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that a positive organisational philosophy is developed when the organisational leader creates a school environment that is positive, motivating, and encouraging to the organisational members to promote a positive philosophy that positively influences the organisational culture.
In agreement with Lunenburg’s (2011:22) assertion, it can be said that philosophies are created based on experiences, and different people within the school have different experiences. Therefore, it is possible for a school’s culture to be based on a bad or poor philosophy developed by one individual in the organisation, which is then shared with new members of the school.
2.2.4.1.4 Vision and mission
At the base of the organisational culture lies the mission and vision for the school (Confeld, 2016:7). Nir and Bogler (2003) as cited by Xaba and Janson (2013:130), define the vision of the organisation as a concrete idea that describes what needs to be achieved by the organisation’s members and how this should be done. A vision in the organisational setting presents the image that the organisation wants to express (Masuku, 2011:63). Carpenter (2015:683) asserts that vision provides clear direction for all the members of the school.
A mission statement concretises the organisation’s vision and expresses its direction and purpose (Xaba & Jansen, 2013:130). The mission statement of the organisation creates a sense of uniqueness and identity that serves as a platform for action in the organisation (Masuku, 2011:63). A mission states how business is done in terms of teaching and learning in the school (Carpenter, 2015:684). Masuku (2011:63) points out that a mission statement makes explicit the values of a school and therefore does much to indicate the expectation as to what the culture of the school should indicate.
A shared understanding of the mission and vision includes indicators, timelines, and targets focused on learning (Carpenter, 2015:683). In this regard, the school’s intended future state of teaching and learning practice is usually reflected by the vision of school regarding the determination of functions would be carried out to achieve the vision (Xaba & Jansen, 2013:130). Meanwhile, a school’s mission statement usually succinctly states and organisation’s goals and priorities and strategies for achieving them (Xaba & Jansen, 2013:130).
26 2.2.4.1.5 Aims and objectives
Xaba and Janson (2013:130) describe the aims and objectives of the organisation as a statement of intent that provides direction or intent to specific actions designed to achieve an outcome or behaviour. Improving from this definition it can be asserted that the aims and objectives of the school are the core aspects that influence and drive the success of the school.
By virtue of their thrust, aims and objectives influence a school’s organisational culture while they also are influenced by the school’s culture (Xaba & Janson, 2013:130).
2.2.4.1.6 Assumptions
Alvarez (2018:33) states that ways of behaviour that provide the group’s stability, sense of belonging, and reinforce self-esteem are emanate from assumptions, which he describes as unconscious aspects, which are a relatively stable set of agreements and understandings. Xaba and Janson (2013: 131) assert that assumptions are pre-conscious, non-confrontable, and highly complex aspects of human psychology.
Furthermore, Xaba and Jansen (2013:131) contend that Assumptions are can be instrumental in shaping the school’s ethos as they are accepted beliefs and perceptions of feelings an organisation’s members (Xaba & Janson, 2013:131).
According to Lunenberg (2011:4), assumptions as expressive of perceptions people hold about what is important in the school environment, are unconscious and therefore unquestionable in the view of people in an organisation.
2.2.4.1.7 Ethos
Revealing the spirit and attitude of a group of people within the organisation, an ethos denotes the image and charisma of an organisation (Xaba & Janson, 2013:131). Lunenburg (2011:4) identifies character as an ethos that shapes the behaviour of the members of the organisation and is shaped by the organisation’s vision and mission. The character of the school may influence how members of the organisation experience school life (Xaba & Janson, 2013:131).
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Masuku (2011:64) indicates that there is a difference between behaviour and character, where behaviour is a way people conduct themselves on a day-to-day basis and character is expressed by what people say and how they dress. In this regard, both the behaviour and character of the teachers and learners of the school will influence the culture of the school. However, the school’s organisational culture may create an organisational ethos, where staff members identify with the organisation’s vision and mission (Xaba & Janson, 2013: 131).
2.2.4.1.8 Norms and values
According to Peterson and Deal (2009:5), norms are unspoken expectations, which involve and rules that staff and learners have to follow as grounded the school’s beliefs, values, and assumptions. They involve what should or ought to be done as well as what should not be done in the school (Masuku, 2011:64).
Values are defined as the accepted standards that determine individuals’ behaviours the organisation (Xaba & Janson, 2013:131). This means, schools as organisations have standards that govern the behaviour of teachers and learners within the school.
Furthermore, a strong organisational identify, collective commitment, stable social system and a reduction of the need of the need for bureaucratic controls can be provided by shared values (Lunenburg, 2011).
The norms and values of the school’s organisational culture are important aspects as they influence and shape the rules and regulations of the school (Carpenter, 2015:685). Xaba (in print) posits that in an organisational setting, norms and values be shared expectations of appropriate behaviour in a specific context, which means that norms and values in a school will have an influence on the schools’
organisational culture.