REVIEW OF LITERATURE ON JOB SATISFACTION
2.5 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION AND JOB SATISFACTION
2.5.3 The Job Characteristics Model
This theory adopts a straight forward approach of looking for the causes of job
satisfaction in the characteristics of the job itself (Start, 2004). According to Zachary and
Kuzuhara (2005:45-46), the model focuses on creating jobs that have highly valued
rewards built into them as an attempt to increase intrinsic motivation through careful job
redesign. The model suggests three conditions, collectively called Critical Psychological
States, under which a high degree of internal work motivation is likely to occur. The
three critical psychological states are:
• experienced meaningfulness of the work
To be motivating, the work being done must be perceived as important in some way and as having value by the person doing it.
• experienced responsibility for outcomes of the work
If a person feels directly responsible and personally accountable for the results achieved in a job, there is much greater personal investment and commitment than if that person simply follows someone's instructions.
• knowledge of the actual results of the work activities
This is enhanced when feedback about job performance comes directly to the person doing the job. When an individual can personally confirm how well the work has been done, his feelings of satisfaction - or - concern will be stronger than if the feedback is indirect.
Zachary and Kuzuhara (2005) mention that since the critical psychological states of work as mentioned above occur inside a person, it is difficult to obtain their accurate picture.
To compensate for this problem, the core job characteristics are suggested to build into jobs that are likely to facilitate the creation of the three critical psychological states in people performing those jobs (that is, to make people experience meaningfulness of the work, responsibility for the outcomes of the work and know ledge of the actual results of work activities). According to Zachary and Kuzuhara (2005), there are five major dimensions of a job that determine its level of job satisfaction for people. These dimensions are as follows:
• Skill variety - the extent to which a job entails different activities and involves a range of different skills and talents (Mullins, 2005:716). Individuals with desire for personal growth will not derive satisfaction from jobs which are repetitive in nature but from those which change in nature and results in challenge (Gruneberg,
1979).
• Task identity - the extent to which a job involves completion of a whole piece of work with a visible outcome (Mullins, 2005:716). An individual is likely to derive satisfaction if he can see that he has produced something worthwhile. This gives him something to point to proudly and say, "I did that."
ure 2.2 The Job Characteristics Model
CORE JOB CHARACTERISTICS
Skill variety Task identity Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback from job
CRITICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL
STATES
Experienced meaningfulness of the work
Experienced responsiblilty for outcomes of the work
Knowledge of the actual results of the work activities
OUTCOMES
High internal work motivation
High "growth satisfaction"
High general job satisfaction
High work effectiveness
Moderators:
1. Knowledge and skill 2. Growth need strength 3. Context satisfactions
Source: Zachary, Wm. B., and Kuzuhara, L. W. (2005). Organizational Behavior:
Integrated Models and Applications. United States of America: South-Western.
Task significance - the extent to which a job has a meaningful impact on an individual and other people, either inside or outside the organisation (Mullins, 2005:716). It is unlikely that an individual will derive satisfaction just by successfully completing a task, unless the job has significance for him as an individual. Feelings of satisfaction are stronger if the work being done is recognised by others as important.
Autonomy - the extent to which a job allows an employee freedom, independence and discretion in planning the work and determining how to undertake it without constant supervision (Mullins, 2005:716). Responsibility for making decisions concerning one's job is a prerequisite of applying a skill. As such, people with high need for personal growth are more satisfied when they are given responsibility to determine their own work methods (Gruneberg, 1979).
• Feedback - the extent to which a job provides an individual with direct and clear information on the effectiveness of job performance (Mullins, 2005:716).
Feedback on job performance is essential if an individual is to have a chance of modifying his attitude and behaviour in light of his past performance. This process leads to an individual getting involved with his job. Gruneberg (1979) emphasises that the greater the job involvement, the greater will be either job satisfaction (if all goes well) or job dissatisfaction (if progress is frustrating).
2.5.4 Social Reference Group Theory
Korman (1977:218) summarises this theory as follows:
"Job satisfaction is a function of, or is positively related to, the degree to which the characteristics of a job meet with the approval and the desires of the groups to which the individual looks for guidance in evaluating the world and defining social reality."
Blood and Hulin (1967) cited in Korman (1977) have shown that socially and economically deprived people can, despite their underprivileged life situation, show an astonishingly high degree of job satisfaction. The probable reason for this is that such people seem not to evaluate their situation in terms of middle class aspirations, as many have assumed they do, or even in terms of their own needs and desires but seem to compare their own lot with that of their peers and neighbours who are equally deprived.
In relation to this reference group, they may be relatively well off and hence relatively satisfied. According to Korman (1977), the results from Hulin and Blood (1967) suggest that reference group processes are more important in predicting the job satisfaction of blue collar workers than white collar workers, if it is assumed that blue-collar workers have lower self-esteem than white-collar workers.
2.5.4.1 Evaluation of the Social Reference Group Theory
Korman (1977) points out that the theory leaves many questions unanswered. How for example, do individuals choose which reference group to relate to? Why do reference
groups have the expectations they do? What constitutes a reference group - seeing individuals differ in the reference group they choose because of their own individual personalities?