REVIEW OF LITERATURE
3.3 Learner characteristics
different conceptions of learning (Buckley et al 2010). Due to the above reasons, my study explored the support structures and strategies used by adults at ZOU to cope with studying in isolation, as well as social and technological uncertainties in DL.
Knowles‘ andragogy theory shows that learners‘ personal attributes like physical condition, maturity, experience and interest affect adults‘ ability and willingness to learn. ZOU enrolled into the B Ed programme, rural and urban students with Ordinary Level Certificate with at least grade C in English Language. Most of those were employed teachers with administrative experience (P.4). A few were from other economic sectors, in administrative posts and with Ordinary Level plus professional qualifications equivalent to the teaching diploma, but had no university learning experience.
In some programmes open access polices provide entry to higher education for some students who do not meet the traditional entry criteria and second chance learners who left school early or did not obtain sufficiently good grades for university entrance. Consequently, we have a divide between the expectations of the university and their previous learning experience (Buckley et al 2010). Johnson (1998) echoes Knowles‘ andragogical assumptions (P.23) by saying that, DL students are more successful than formal education students because they seek higher education with the desire to succeed. They are older, more self- motivated and goal-focused.
3.3.1 Students’ goal focus
Adult students are not only successful in DL because of maturity to age around 25 years (P.14), but they are kept self-motivated by achievement of goals (Jarvis 1995).
Not only do DL students have to be able to self-start to cope, but that they also have to be: focused, responsible and persistent (Lowe 2005). Kember (1995) notes that the level of educational goals was found to be a strong influence on college completion (Sewell and Shah 1967). Students need not only focus on attainment of the degree, but also have to examine their learning style since what they learn to attain the degree is equally important. They need to engage in deep learning based on the andragogical ‗need to know‘ assumption (P.23) and intrinsic motivation (Kember 1995; Carnwell and Harrington 2001; Blunt and Yang 2002; Venter 2003). This is
based on the educational philosophy that the foundation of higher education assumes that the adult learners have a primary responsibility for their own motivation. This does not suggest that the external environment cannot be facilitative but that it does not encourage responsibility (Pew 2007).
If one is driven to succeed by one‘s own beliefs, morals, desires and goals, then access to intrinsic motivators is instant and not dependent on the availability or cooperation of external sources like money or motivational speakers. Acquisition of knowledge or critical thinking skills come from a personal sense of accomplishment due to one‘s maturity as an individual. Achievement of personal goals outweighs any external reward. External gratification, while desirable and not to be discounted, is secondary to an internal sense of accomplishment (Pew 2007). By growing older, the mature adult becomes more independent and self-directing. ―When a person becomes older, his motivation to learn comes more from his own self‖ (Knowles 1984:12).
Hence adoption of self-motivation techniques is necessary to succeed in DL.
3.3.2 Planning
Planning is preparation in advance of a semester to ensure students‘ successful completion of courses with minimum stress, but more enjoyable learning. Planning involves proactive announcements and keeping up (Kazmer 2000). Proactive announcements on semester programmes inform learners about the courses on offer and the teaching timetable to psyche them to prepare their own schedules. Planning includes giving students materials and assignment due dates ahead of the semester.
This helps students to incorporate study goals into life goals and it also enables them to organise, in advance, support they need from families and employers.
Keeping up is having work done on time by tutors and students to avoid assignment piling. This requires discipline and trains students to plan ahead in order to complete their reading and written work according to schedule. ZOU appeared to face challenges in its planning since it was unable to publish examination results before
registration every semester (Izuagie 2001). That disrupted the beginning of semesters as students and lecturers were often not sure when to start.
It takes self-sacrifice for adult learners to succeed (Kember, Ying et al. 2005). Tough suggests that, the self-drive in adult DL students to set own deadlines, get the proper resources and find the time to learn, increase motivation to learn (Baugmarter 2003).
The more energy a student devotes to contributing time and thoughts to each class, the more learning and satisfaction they gain (Kazmer 2000).
Valentine (2002) echoed the essence of the andragogical self-direction, need to know, and motivation to learn assumptions in adults (P.23) as she argued that not all students are suited to DL and not all subjects are best taught via this medium. More mature students are the most likely to succeed with DL. Students over 50 years were found with higher course completion rates than other DL students (Galusha 2006).
Valentine (2002) draws from Threkeld and Brzoska (1994) that success comes with ability to tolerate ambiguity, to be autonomous and flexible. She further cites Hardy and Boaz (1997) who found that, compared to most face-to-face learning environments, DL requires students to be more focused, better time managers and to be able to work independently and in groups. Many distance learners are different from residential undergraduates in that they are already in professions. They have well defined goals and are more motivated.
Distance learners enjoy being part of a virtual learning community. In line with andragogical assumptions (P. 23) and constructivist views (P.40), students in these communities feel less pressure to perform individually and more pressure to collaborate and be part of a team. Being involved in a collaborative learning process is an important part of forming the foundation of a learning community. When this is not encouraged, participation is low and dialogue is absent (Valentine 2002).
3.3.3 Previous distance learning experience
Adult learners with prior DL experience are more likely to succeed in programmes than those with conventional experience only. Kember (1995) found that new students to DL are at risk because of the low state of academic integration following the long break since past study activity. It was found that success in the initial assignments leads to growing confidence. It also heightens new students‘ academic integration. Students may initially find integration difficult and can be classified along the external attribution and academic incompatibility track in Kember‘s model.
However, the model emphasizes students‘ progress towards academic success rather than concentrating on the more negative outcome of incompatibility (Kember 1995).
Academic integration is strongly influenced by the educational background facet of learner characteristics. Students with limited exposure to the educational system find it more difficult to integrate with the norms of academic study. Most adults enter DL with few skills in learning-how-to-learn and self-directed learning. They get into DL with an external locus of control. An external locus of control is a psychological state in which students perceive that persons and events external to themselves have a controlling influence over the course and direction of their life. Adult learners with this perspective have been, in Freire‘s language, ―domesticated‖ by the traditional educational experience to see the learning experience as something that happens "to"
them from the outside. The most critical need for adult learners at that point in DL is to receive targeted institutional and instructional support that will enable them to overcome the disorientation of a new learning experience (Lowe 2005).
Their ability to adjust will be influenced by their goal commitment. Academic study is like a game with rules, conventions and codes of behaviour. To be successful, a student has to learn the rules and integrate behaviour with the accepted norms.
Sometimes working with other students in groups helps learners to remedy cases of normative incongruence (Kember 1995). My study explored how my participants
addressed their demographic needs in order to cope with DL. I examined participants‘ experiences with their goal focus, planning and educational past to discover the structures and strategies they used to cope with DL.