CHAPTER 4: ORGANISATIONAL LEARNING AND KNOWLEDGE
4.3 Organisational learning
4.3.4 Learning in organisations
4.3.3.3 Organisational infrastructure
Technology, particularly information and communications technology, plays a vital role in providing the infrastructure needed to support flatter network structures and organisational learning.
According to Quinn (1992) the media and channels of communication that assist in the creation, storage, sharing and transfer of knowledge are an integral part of building a learning environment. The infrastructure of an organisation comprises the techniques and technologies that underpin its learning and knowledge management activities. Techniques and technologies will be discussed in detail in see Chapter 5.
In summary, the culture and structure of the organisation have a significant influence on learning in the organisation, and the technological infrastructure helps make possible the sharing of knowledge, which is a result of learning. The technological infrastructure presents new strategic opportunities for organisations to learn on a corporate-wide basis. Technological infrastructure permits the redistribution of power, function, and control to wherever they are most effective. The technological
infrastructure is a powerful enabling tool for improving organisational communication and therefore knowledge flow and learning.
4.3.4.1 Individual learning
Individual learning refers to the change of skills, insights, knowledge, attitudes and values acquired by a person through self-study, technology-based instruction, insight and observation (Marquardt, 1996: 21). Individual learning is needed for
organisational learning since individuals form the units of groups and organisations.
Senge (1990a: 236) asserts: “Organisations learn only through individuals who learn.
Individuals do not guarantee organisational learning, but without individual learning no organisational learning occurs.”
Argyris and Schon (1996: 20) agree with Senge that there can be no organisational learning without individual learning. They further suggest that it is necessary for individuals to embed their discoveries, challenges and results of their enquiries into the organisation’s memory, which encodes the theory-in-use. Individual learning in the organisation is constantly encouraged, supported and rewarded through an
organisational system that promotes continuous self-development. Techniques include courses, workshops, seminars, self-learning materials, development groups, coaching, mentoring and data banks.
According to Marquardt (1996: 33-35), employees are expected to learn not only skills related to their own jobs, but also the skills of others in their unit. Therefore each person’s commitment and ability to learn is essential.
Every employee should be aware of and enthusiastically accept the responsibility to be a learner and support the learning of others. Individuals should also understand how these learning responsibilities benefit the organisation. The entire workplace should be filled with innovative, creative and accountable learners.
4.3.4.2 Group or team learning
Group or team learning refers to the increase in knowledge, skills and competencies, which is accomplished by and within groups. Although the principles of individual learning cannot be directly applied to groups, it appears that group learning can only take place through individual learning.
According to Senge (1990a: 238), it is the collaborative effect of multiple individuals learning together that creates group learning. As organisations must deal with
increasingly complex problems, they are discovering that they must become skilled in group/team learning. Work teams must be able to think, create and learn as an entity.
Team learning should occur every time a group of people in the organisation are brought together.
According to Pearn, Roderick and Mulrooney (1995: 23), employees may have learning needs as individuals, but there is also another sense in which an employee, as a member of a group, may have a need for team based learning to occur, which transcends the learning needs of the individual.
With the increasing recognition of the benefits of cross-functional and customer- focused teams and also self-directed or self-managed teams, attention needs to be given to the process and outcomes of learning as a team and not just the learning of individuals who make up a team.
Marquardt (1996: 35) argues that teams should be able to generate knowledge through analysis of complex issues, innovative action and collective problem solving. Teams need to learn better from their own experiences and past history. They should
experiment with new approaches and quickly transfer knowledge among themselves and throughout the organisation. Skills which are developed can be transferred to
other teams and the team’s accomplishments can set the tone and establish a standard for learning for the larger organisation.
Watkins and Marsick (1993: 109-110) examined how teams learn and why they learn effectively. They suggest that various group and organisational conditions influence team learning and determine whether team learning becomes organisational learning.
Team factors influencing learning included:
• Appreciation of teamwork – involves the receptivity of the team to different views and ideas, the degree to which the team is valued over the individual, and ways the team builds on the synergy of members.
• Opportunity for individual expression – includes the opportunity for input into mission, goals, operating procedures and ease of opportunity for members to express themselves during team activities
• Operating principles – includes how beliefs, values, structure and
infrastructure are created, and how effectively the team balances tasks with relationships and learning.
Organisational conditions influence whether team outcomes are shared and whether team learning leads to organisational learning.
4.3.4.3 Organisational learning
Organisational learning represents the enhanced intellectual and productive capability gained through corporate- wide commitment and the opportunity for continuous improvement. Organisational learning is the increase in learning capacity of the organisation (speed, depth and breadth of learning) (Marquardt, 1996: 22).
According to Marquardt (1996: 24) organisational learning differs from individual and group/team learning in two basic respects. Firstly, organisational learning occurs through the shared insights, knowledge and mental models of members of the
organisation. Secondly, organisational learning also builds on past knowledge and experience – that is, on organisational memory, which depends on institutional mechanisms, for example, policies and strategies used to retain knowledge.
Though individual and team learning and organisational learning are interrelated, organisational learning is seen as more than the sum of individual and group learning.
Organisational learning is the result of the know-how embedded in the whole group working together (Dixon, 1999: 59).
Organisational learning focuses on learning within the organisation. According to Pearn, Roderick and Mulrooney (1995: 23-25) the emphasis is placed on learning and adaptation is highly valued within the organisation. All opportunities are taken to ensure that sustained learning and adaptation occur in the interests of the
organisation’s quest for efficiency and competitive edge.