OCEAN
4.3. METHOD OF PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION
to build the theory of the study. Secondary data was used to examine the role of women in the development process at home and society. In addition, maps, photographs, newspapers, census data, government reports and annual reports of the Working for Water Project were used to supplement the data.
In addition, the face-to-face interview affords the researcher the opportunity to observe the non':'verbal behaviours or expressions and thus obtain important clues as to how the respondent actually feels about the issue being discussed
Semi-structured in-depth interviews or open-ended interviews were employed as a key information-gathering tool in relation to the objectives of the study. The interviews, were conducted with the five stakeholder groups and were tape- recorded. This ~as aimed at facilitating a linkage of respondents' perceptions of empowerment with the policies of the project to build capacity i~ the workers.
A micro-level study comprising the household members of the women employees of the Working for Water was conducted to delve into the abliity of the household to generate income, the manner in which basic needs are met and the control of resources and power in the household.
In addition, information was gathered on composition and size of households, level of education, age and sex of members of households, occupation of household members, income and expenditure, and division of labour in the households. For the purpose of this study, a household is 'defined as people who live and eat together, with common bread winner(s) and pull economic resources for the welfare of all its members. The household heads were grouped into two types, consisti1g of female household heads and male household heads. The head of each household was interviewed and where the woman employee of the Project was the household head, an adult member who was above 18 years of, age was interviewed. This was to enhance better responses from both sides (the women employees and their household members), as they were free to express their perception on empowerment, division of labour and power relations in the household . Themes were identified and the interpretation of the results focused on the availability and control of resources (human and financial), power relations in the household, training and level of education. The socio-economic indicators
selected for this purpose were income and expenditure, sources of income, economic activities, employment, education and level of political and social involvement, that is, participation in the running of the household and community, decision-making on income and in making choices (see appendix 11).
As the researcher is non-Zulu speaking, two Zulu-speaking field assistants were employed to assist the researcher in conducting the interviews. In order to reduce the bias that may ensue from the interviews, questionnaires were administered, the research assistants and the researcher took notes and in addition the interviews were audio-taped for later transcription and translation.
This to a large extent would have eliminated major errors and bias, and enhanced the reliability and validity of the study.
4.3.2. QUESTIONNAIRES
The use of questionnaire is one of the common ways by which researchers obtain information from respondents. The purpose of using a questionnaire is to survey a representative sample of the population in order to make generalizations from the responses (Valentine, 1997). It consists of closed or open-ended questions, which facilitate responses into particular categories and can be analyzed using various statistical techniques. Although the interview method is more comprehensive in that respondents can express their views and thoughts without limits, the open-ended questionnaire allows for perceptions of and information on empowerment. Also the open-ended questions allows the respondents to express their views and thoughts openly on issues in the questionnaire and they are able to decide the aspect, form, detail and length of their responses (Smith, 1975).
The language of the questions for the survey was kept simple and straightforward, avoiding vague and ambiguous expressions. In addition an
informed consent (see appendix I) was attached to the questionnaire, which informed the respondents of the objectives of the research and their voluntary participation in the interviews. Also, the consent form assured the preservation of anonymity and confidentiality of the report (Moser and Karlton, 1971).
The questionnaires were administered alongside with the interviews hence all the administered questionnaires were retrieved. On the whole, 67 questionnaires were administered - 25 to the women employees, 25 to the household members of the women employees, 10 to the community members, six to the contractors and one to the project leader. On the average, each interview of the women employees and the project leader took about an hour while the remaining stakeholders' interview took about 45 minutes each. As earlier noted, empowerment is a new word in development'discourse henCe it was difficult to get the right word in isizulu. The use of empowerment depends on the content in which it is used. It could mean "ukuhlomisa", "nkululeko", "ukusimama",
"umdlandla" or "umfutho". Thus, when the women were asked about their perception of empowerment, the question "what do you understand by the term empowerment?" had to be framed as "Yini oyaziyo ngenkululeko yamandla?
The interviews were audio-taped for further reference· during analysis. The research assistants also helped in the translation of the interview from isiZulu to English language and thereafter the transcripts were prepared. The researcher and the assistants were able to observe the verbal and non-verbal behaviours of the respondents and where they were reluctant or declined to answer some of the questions, respondents were asked other questions and the avoided questions were later re-focused and captured.
4.3.3. SAMPLING TECHNIQUE AND SIZE
A purposive non-probability sampling method was adopted for collecting data for
the study. This involved the selection of sample units in view of time and financial constraints (Shaw and Wheeler, 1994). Sampling involved five stakeholder groups: the women employees, the project leader, the contractors, the household members of the women employees of the Working for Water Project and community members in the area. A total sample of 25 female employees was used for the study in the catchment area. This selection was based on the proportion of women employees in the area. There were a total of 158 women employees in Umlaas. As sampling was undertaken through non- probability method, it was made to fully represent characteristics of the population. This included women who were in their reproductive age and older ones. Also, 25 household members of the women employees, ten community members consisting of three private business owners (using systematic random sampling) and seven others drawn from other occupations (who were randomly selected) in the settlements were included in the interview. The interview also included six contractors (four men and two women) and the project leader (manager) of the Working for Water Project. They were interviewed on their perception of empowerment and the impact assessment of the Project on the empowerment of women and development of the study area.
The small sample sizes for each group may raise questions on the generalisability of the research. However, Schofield (1993: 206 cited in Flowerdew and Martin, 1997) argues that generalisabil.ity in the sense of producing broad universal law is not a useful or obtainable goal for any kind of research in social sciences. There is no claim that the case study in this research will be representative of the total -population of rural women in South Africa. However, the sample population is considered 'typical' of certain cluster of characteristics and this is one way of decreasing the problem of case study generalization. The data collected were analyzed and reported in context while the conclusion and recommendations are limited to those in similar contexts as well.
4.3.4. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
In view of the sensitive aspect of certain parts of the investigation, which might cause some psychological discomfort for respondents, ethical concerns were given particular consideration. Permission to conduct the research was sought from the Centre for Social and Development Studies, the Project Manager of the Working for Water Project and community leaders who were briefed on the purpose of the survey. Consent was sought from respondents with the assurance that the confidentiality of their responses and anonymity would be preserved in reporting the data. Appointments with the respondents were arranged well in advance at a mutually acceptable time and place through the' Project Manager.
Since the quality of data often depends on trust and rapport between the interviewer and respondents, the atmosphere:was kept cordial and open. Also, the interviewers were made to commence informally in order to minimize negative impacts on data gathering process. Ethical concerns were raised where sensitive issues, such as possible abuse, suppression, rejection, disappointment and vulnerability; were brought up in the interview (Finch, 1994 cited in Flowerdew and Martin, 1997). Vulnerable women who feel suppressed and generally unheard might not be able to limit their responses and as such stand the risk of "telling too much" to a stranger and thereafter regret it (Finch, 1994 cited in Flowerdew and Martin, 1997). While aware of these risks, listening and sharing experiences and information with such respondents engendered their confidence and trust.
4.3.5. RESPONDENTS' BIAS
Another challenge faced by qualitative studies of this nature is that the respondents may not fully understand some of the questions asked during the interview the way they are intended. The respondent may also feel pressured into agreeing with the ideas of the researcher. This will eventually subject the data collected to error (Flowerdew and Martin, 1997). Such errors are attributable
to ambiguous or vague questions, inappropriate wording of questions or poor interviewing technique. In addition, the face-to-face contact with the respondent might tempt him or her (the respondent) to say what the researcher 'wants to "- hear' (Flowerdew and Martin, 1997). In view of this, two research assistants who were Zulu speakers conducted the research interview. The research assistants
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were trained to create a friendly atmosphere with the respondents as well as observe verbal and non-verbal behaviours of the respondents. Where discrepancies were noted, such were considered and reflected in the analysis and interpretation of data. To this end, reflective summaries during and at the end of the interviews were used to ensure a proper representation of the respondents' views. Also, the reliability of the research was enhanced by triangulation obtained by comparing the data from the audio-tapes, written notes and questionnaires.