CHAPTER 3 MUNICIPAL PLANNING AS A TOOL FOR CLIMATE CHANGE
3.3 Municipal planning and climate change
Municipal planning presents opportunities to address climate change adaptation and mitigation.217 As suggested earlier, while mitigation focusses on slowing the rate of climate change, adaptation lessens the adverse effects of climate change.218 The overarching goal of mitigation and adaptation is to reduce the long-term effects of climate change.219 Cities have opportunities to influence these sectors220 in a way that will help decrease GHG emissions.221 In reducing GHG emissions, cities could
211 Forbes "An Introduction to Municipal Planning in South Africa" 2.
212 Condon, Canvens and Miller Urban Planning Tools for Climate Mitigation 8.
213 Condon, Canvens and Miller Urban Planning Tools for Climate Mitigation 8; Forbes "An Introduction to Municipal Planning in South Africa" 23.
214 Nel Can the South African Land Use Management System be an Effective Tool in Creating Low(er) Carbon Cities? 3.
215 Wilson and Piper Spatial Planning and Climate Change 208.
216 Condon, Canvens and Miller Urban Planning Tools for Climate Mitigation 8-9.
217 Mohammed, Hassan and Badamasi 2019 International Journal of Urban Sustainable Development 309.
218 Zhao et al 2018 Ecosystem Health and Sustainability 86.
219 Zhao et al 2018 Ecosystem Health and Sustainability 86.
220 See section 2.3 above.
221 Gouldson et al 2016 Cities 12; Fawzy et al 2020 Environmental Chemistry Letters 2073; Allan, Jones and Thondoo Cities and Climate Change: Climate Policy, Economic Resilience and Urban
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use their urban planning authority to control land use and development and further regulate the city's spatial shape and activities.222 For example, in the urban form, more efficiencies and low-carbon paths may be achieved by making buildings more energy-efficient or supplying renewable energy and making buildings denser.223 Urban form influences mass transportation.224 Urban forms with high density, mixed land uses, and sufficient transit may stimulate non-vehicle mobility, resulting in considerable GHG emission reductions in the transport sector.225 In a hot–dry climate, an urban form's ability to survive high temperatures during the summer season is determined by the proximity of buildings so that shadows may be thrown on each other to assist with decreases in temperature, for example.226 This shows that several urban form characteristics, such as urban density, green space, impervious surface areas, and their forms and combinations substantially impact on the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect.227 Urban design not only aids in the mitigation of global warming by promoting mass public transportation and low-energy inputs for electrical cooling equipment, but it may also aid in the adaptation of cities to the threat of soaring high summer temperatures.228
Climate change mitigation requires behavioural change by human beings.229 It has been said that human actions are regarded as "'behavioral wedges' of a larger pie
Sustainability 17; DFFE South Africa's Third Nationally Determined Communications under the United Nations Framework Convention of Climate Change 230. Also see section 1.1 above.
222 Hurlimann, Moosavi and Browne 2021 Land Use Policy 2; Zawieska and Pieriegud 2018 Transport Policy Journal 39.
223 World Bank A Review of Integrated Urban Planning Tools for Greenhouse Gas Mitigation: Linking Land Use, Infrastructure Transition, Technology, and Behavioral Change 5-6.
224 Davoudi, Crawford and Mehmood Planning for Climate Change: Strategies for Mitigation and Adaptation for Spatial Planners 35.
225 Xu et al 2019 Environment International 2; UNFCCC Urban Environment Related Mitigation Benefits and Co-benefits of Policies, Practices and Actions for Enhancing Mitigation Ambition and Options for Supporting their Implementation 23.
226 Davoudi, Crawford and Mehmood Planning for Climate Change: Strategies for Mitigation and Adaptation for Spatial Planners 35.
227 Xu et al 2019 Environment International 2.
228 Davoudi, Crawford and Mehmood Planning for Climate Change: Strategies for Mitigation and Adaptation for Spatial Planners 35.
229 Van de Ven, González-Eguino and Arto 2018 Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 854.
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of necessary steps to reduce emissions."230 Humans are a major source of GHG, especially in economic sectors like energy and transportation231 - mitigation measures could be implemented in these sectors between 2020 and 2050.232 However, several cities around the globe have been pushing for behavioural change in sectors such as building and transport to reduce GHG emissions.233 For example, the Trademark East Africa began planning a project in 2017 to improve roads to the port and truck holding areas in Mombasa.234 The project prioritises Non-Motorised Transportation (NMT), containing about 23 kilometres of NMT amenities.235 NMT is a zero-emission form of transport central to an urban planning departments' strategic thinking in many parts of the world.236
Local government could enforce behavioural change for mitigating climate change by using regulatory tools and policies such as local plans, which generally include land-use zoning standards, and building standards and codes.237 Climate change mitigative policies also have the power to navigate behavioural change by promoting, among other things, rooftop solar, using solar radiation to pre-heat or heat water for building use, and biking infrastructure in cities.238 For example, Mexico City reconstructed around 300 kilometres of bicycle lanes, replaced all high emission
230 Williamson et al Climate Change Needs Behavior Change: Making the Case for Behavioral Solutions to Reduce Global Warming 13.
231 Williamson et al Climate Change Needs Behavior Change: Making the Case for Behavioral Solutions to Reduce Global Warming 13.
232 Williamson et al Climate Change Needs Behavior Change: Making the Case for Behavioral Solutions to Reduce Global Warming 13.
233 Abubakar and Dano 2019 Environment, Development and Sustainability 5133-5136.
234 Trademark East Africa is an East African none profit company established in 2010 to support the growth of trade both regional and international in East Africa – see United Nations Investing on People Who Walk and Cycle: Share the Road Programme Annual Report 2017 26.
235 United Nations Investing on People Who Walk and Cycle: Share the Road Programme Annual Report 2017 26.
236 Cooke, Koinange and Zuidgeest Calculating the Potential Climate Value of Non Motorised Transport projects in African Cities 4.
237 Silva and Acheampong Developing an Inventory and Typology of Land-Use Planning Systems and Policy Instruments in OECD Countries 19.
238 Williamson et al Climate Change Needs Behavior Change: Making the Case for Behavioral Solutions to Reduce Global Warming 14-15.
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cars with low-emission cars, and required private schools to implement bus-riding programmes.239 Additionally, Mexico City has green roofs on public buildings.240 Buildings in São Paulo are required to have solar water heating systems.241 São Paulo has further provided for efficient public transportation and has built bicycle lanes to reduce carbon emissions.242 All new projects must bear energy efficiency badges.243 In South Africa, the City of eThekwini Metropolitan Municipality has implemented programmes and policies which mitigate climate change through energy efficiency.244 These include the Shisa Solar Programme and the National Solar Water Heater Programme for homes.245 All the cities' actions mentioned above show the potential value of using the regulatory and policy aspects of municipal planning to advance the behavioural change necessary for climate change mitigation.
3.4 Municipal spatial planning for climate mitigation