longer than two years. Relatively well-off farmers purchase land from poor immigrant farmers. Consequently, many poor farmers lost their land and have to rent from neighbours (JICA 2007). The main crops cultivated in the district are maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, sorghum, beans, soybeans, and peanuts. Other cultivated crops include rice, irish potatoes, taro, green peas, and vegetables (e.g. cabbage, tomato, eggplants) (JICA 2007). The main domestic animals raised in Bugesera are cattle, goats, sheep, poultry, pigs, and rabbits. Typically, better-off farmers own at least five local (Ankole) cows and a few goats; the middle class own one to three cows and five to eight goats, while the poor possess only a few goats and the very poor only a few rabbits (JICA 2007).
In addition to agricultural crops, cattle are well distributed in the Bugesera district. About 20,950 cattle were recorded in the district in 2007, with high numbers in Nyamata and Kamabuye and less in Shyara and Nyarugenge sectors (JICA 2007). Poverty alleviation is the principal goal in rural and agricultural development of Bugesera. Livestock production is expected to improve livelihoods of the poor. However, policy interventions do not practically support these entire complex systems. The constraints of the farming system in the district, according to Musahara (2001) are: long dry season, lack of fertilizers, lack of property rights which is a disincentive for perennial crops, lack of water in the dry season especially in the southern and northern parts of the district though there is abundant water in lakes and the Akagera river. In the southwest part of Bugesera farmers face similar constraints but these are compounded by scarcity of land and almost complete absence of grazing land. The latter issue has led the livestock owners to adopt a zero grazing system where animals are kept and solely fed in a shed.
in the east by the districts of Ruhango, Nyanza and Huye and in the west by the districts of Nyamasheke and Rusizi (Figure 3.3). The total area of the district is 1091 km2 and the population in 2007 was approximately 333,587 (MINALOC 2008).
3.2.2 Soil and Topography
Nyamagabe is a highland area with very steep slopes. Its altitude ranges from 1500–2500 m a.s.l with an average of 1800 m a.s.l (Olson 1994a). The altitudes increase from east to west and half of the area has a slope ranging between 40-50% (FAO 1989). The steep slopes (Figure 3.3) and the demographic pressure on this uneven land of Nyamagabe, has led to severe erosion in the area (Olson 1994b). The soil of Nyamagabe is classified as hygro kaolisols humiferes (humic ferrasols) (PIA 1986). It is in the ruzian system constituted by the complex rocks (metamorphic) of the precambrian age: with diverse schist, granite, gneiss, quartzite and basic rocks (amphibolites and pyroxemites) (PIA 1986).
Different areas of the Nyamagabe district are characterized by severe soil acidity and aluminium toxicity. In the high altitude areas (more than 2000 m) of the district, peat predominates over mineral soils. The soils in swamps are clay and kaolin with high soluble alumina (Al3+= 4 meq 100 g-1 of soil) and pH ranging between 4.3 and 4.9 (Nzamurambaho 1996). The low pH combines with high levels of aluminium obstructing biological activities (PIA 1986).
The agricultural potential is low to average and the altitude limits the variety of crops.
Physical properties are good and the risk of acute dryness is limited by the climate (Kanyarukiga and Ngarambe 2003). In the Nyamagabe district, some components of the ecosystem especially the vegetation is under stress because of the acidic soil, which leads to low food production (Musahara 2006).
Figure 3. 3 Map of the Nyamagabe district.
3.2.3 Climate and vegetation
The Nyamagabe district has two rainy seasons. The short rainy season is from September to November and long rainy season is from March to June. In the lowland, the average temperature is 18oC, the rainfall is 1472 mm year-1, and this is the characteristic of humid climate (Ndikumana and Leeuw 1996). In the highland (2000–2500 m a.s.l), the average temperature is 15.5oC and the rainfall is 1800 mm. For the whole district the average annual rainfall is about 1636 mm and the annual temperature ranges from 11.5oC to 20.5oC with an average of 16.5oC (Nzamurambaho 1996).
In the Nyamagabe district, vegetation was composed by grassland, which was created by pastoralists and managed through burning, ensuring younger grass for their grazing animals (Schoenbrun 1993). Due to high population and problem of erosion, grasslands have disappeared. However, some grasses are found under planted trees for erosion
control. These are dominated by Brachiaria spp. and other species grown in the acidic soils like Eragrostis spp., Hyparrhenia spp., and Digitaria spp. (Nzamurambaho 1996).
The remaining natural vegetation in the Nyamagabe district is the Nyungwe forest, which is mountain forest (PIA 1986). As grasslands have disappeared and that there is severe soil depletion, keeping animals in a shed has become an important activity to provide milk for home consumption, cash and manure for crop fertilisation. For this reason, growing grasses and tree legumes is a part of the crop-livestock production system in the Nyamagabe district (Olson 1994a).
3.2.4 Farming system
The Nyamagabe district is part of the highlands in the country and has a diverse farming system that follows the altitude (Table 3.1). The farming system depends on the climate and the topography. Increased population pressure has resulted in continuous cultivation on the same plots. This has led to low soil fertility particularly on steeper slopes resulting in decreased agricultural production (Niyongabo 2004). The latter author reported that the average farm size in Nyamagabe has declined dramatically in the last three decades (11%
increases in households with less than one hectare land).
Table 3. 1 Farming system in the Nyamagabe district
Occupation and use of land Farming system Edge of Nyungwe forest (> 2000 m of altitude) 1) Irish potato
2) Maize 3) Tea 4) Peas Central plateau (1600–1800 m of altitude) 1) Soybean
2) Sweet potato 3) Beans 4) Cassava 5) Colocase
Intermediary zone (1900 m of altitude) 1) Sylviculture (planted forest) 2) Livestock
Source: Adapted from Nzamurambaho (1996)
The traditional farming system in Nyamagabe is related to land tenure where land is either inherited (land given/left to children by parents) or purchased (getting land from someone by giving money or other worthy things). Farming is based on traditional tools (e.g. hoes) used in land cultivation. Farmers use ordinary seeds bought from local market or from neighbours and crops are mixed in the small plot with no fertilizer application (NISR 2007). This traditional farming system has led to low crop production and soil depletion. However, near the homestead, the soil is fertile due to organic manure from stalled animals which is spread on the nearest crops and/or planted pastures (PIA 1986).