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is to develop. In relation to leadership, Kumpfer et al.,(1993) found that when leaders encourage and support members’ ideas and planning efforts, used democratic decision-making processes, and encouraged networking and information sharing among members, work plans were of higher quality, member satisfaction was greater, and members perceived the team as more successful.
Skills
Goodman et al., (1998) find that both participants and leaders must have considerable skills to ensure community capacity to address local concerns. Participants are expected to coordinate meetings, plan community activities, and be proactive in community initiatives; leaders must ensure that community efforts neither drift nor stall (Goodman et al., 1998). Leaders must be skilled in collecting, analysing, and reporting data on needs opportunities, barriers, and resources, facilitating group processes, solving problems and resolving conflicts among participants.
Resources
Goodman et al., (1998) highlights that one way that communities demonstrate a high degree of skill is in the acquisition of needed resources, and capacity is reflected in a community’s ability to access resources. He indicates that resources can either be traditional capital (e.g., property and money) or social capital (e.g., the knowledge and skills of people, particularly their ability to cooperate with one another and form new associations (Fukuyama, 1995). Goodman et al., (1998) indicates that communities need both kinds of resources.
Social and Inter-organisational Networks
Strong social and inter-organisational networks have also been identified to enhance community capacity (Goodman et al.,1998). In evaluating a community’s social
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networks, one can consider (1) structural characteristics, such as size or number of linkages; (2) the relationships among network members, such as the frequency and intensity of their contact; and (3) the benefits that members receive from network ties, such as emotional or tangible support and access to social contacts (Israel, 1982).
Both structural and interactional characteristics of networks have been linked to the functions of social networks (Goodman et al., 1998).
Sense of Community
Goodman et al., (1998) identifies that one consequence of strong network ties is that they often produce a “sense of community”. Sense of community is characterised by
‘caring and sharing’ among the people in a community, mutual respect, generosity, and service to others that enables collective action to address local concerns and produce desired changes (Iscoe, 1974; McMillan & Chavis, 1986; Bachrach & Zautra, 1985; Newbrough & Chavis, 1986).
Understanding of community history
This dimension recognises that a community’s history is made up of people and events. Events include important social, political, and economic changes that have occurred both recently or more distally (Goodman, et al., 1998). A sense of community may be reinforced through the understanding of the community’s history by forging a connection to the past. An awareness of community history is also seen to provide an important backdrop for members in planning solutions to social problems and, as such, is a key component to building community capacity (Bracht &
Kingsbury, 1990; Mulvey & Silka, 1987).
129 4.8 A Phased Approach to the study
In this study, the researcher attempted to use a phased approach. In Phase One, the aim was to conduct a situational analysis of factors that impede school connectedness in the intervention school as perceived by school managers, teachers and learners. A total of 56 grade 10 learners were identified by teachers and referred to be participants in the study. The participants were thus grouped into four groups and four focus group sessions were conducted. Seven semi-structured interviews were also conducted with key informants in the school. Participants included managers (2) and teachers with a Life Orientation background (5).
In Phase Two, the researcher located the findings of the situational analysis within the ecological theoretical framework or approach and explained how it informed the different levels of intervention at the Community school level, the Interpersonal level and Intrapersonal levels of influence. The basic methodology to identify outcome indicators at the different levels of intervention was also outlined.
In Phase Three, an evaluation of the study was conducted. The evaluation was separated into an Outcome Evaluation and Process Evaluation. The outcome evaluation involved a quasi-experimental approach using a before and after matched control design was utilised to determine whether the intervention had the intended outcome on the study participants. The outcome evaluation involved pre-post measures. The sample in both the intervention and control school was all Grade 10 learners and included 137 learners in the intervention school and 123 grade 10 learners in the control school. For the process evaluation component of this study, qualitative methods were used to monitor the reliability of the programme implementation and to understand the factors mediating the findings of the outcome evaluation. These methods included:
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Regular meetings with key role players (Principal, school managers, Life orientation teachers)
Workshop on developing the Schools Liaison Group
Workshop on implementing the lesson plans and monitoring
Review of lesson activity sheets of learners
Development and Implementation of the Peer Mentoring Programme
Individual interviews with key role players (managers, teachers)
Reflections of the researcher as participant in the action research process
Focus groups with learners and semi-structured interviews with teachers and managers - Four focus groups with 15 grade 10 learners were selected by the school for the post-evaluation focus groups. In addition, five, semi-structured interviews were conducted with three Life Orientation teachers and two school managers. The overall aim was to evaluate the efficacy of the intervention in promoting school connectedness.
4.8.1 Research Setting : Formative / Situational Analysis School and Intervention School
The case study school from which the participants were drawn is based in a suburb in KwaZulu-Natal. It is an English medium co-educational and multi-racial public high school, drawing learners from neighbouring African, Coloured, Indian and White communities. The communities referred to included Umlazi (dominantly African), Chatsworth (dominantly Indian), Montclair (White and Coloured) communities. This information was verified through school reports as well as through the Guidance Counsellor and Principal. Reports from the school principal also indicated that the racial breakdown of the sample participants were the same of the learner population.
There was thus majority African, followed by Indian and White, with Coloured
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students in the minority. A breakdown of the racial demographics of the school as indicated by the principal is attached in Appendix 9, pg.254. Managers and teachers report that the learner population comprises adolescents from different socio- economic groups (middle class, working class etc.). Dolby (2001) indicates that the socio-economic status of the learners has an impact on their socialisation in the school and therefore their sense of belonging. It was thus important that this study incorporated learners from different socio-economic backgrounds. The school comprises White, Black, Indian and Coloured teachers and learners. Managers in the school report that socioeconomic factors in the community include single parent families, where parents are often working in other provinces and adolescents are forced to assume the role of care-giver to younger siblings. Over the last several years there has also been an increase in learners’ exposure to substance abuse. Learners have reportedly been witness to scenes of crime and violence. Reports of family disruption and relationship conflicts have also been prevalent. This information was provided by the school Guidance Counsellor and Principal.
4.8.1 Research Setting: Control School
A matched control school in the school district was identified. The researcher was also informed by the Life Orientation HOD that the learners were not exposed to any intervention programmes at the school. Matched features included that it is an English medium co-educational and multi-racial public high school, drawing learners from neighbouring African, Coloured, Indian and White communities. Reports by the school principal also indicated that the population breakdown included African in the majority, followed by Indian and White and Coloured students in the minority.
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(Please see a description of the racial breakdown of the school as indicated by the principal attached in Appendix 9, pg. 254).
Resnick, (2008) indicates that it is ethical to use a control group when the interventions to be implemented are being explored or piloted. As interventions in the current study were piloted and their efficacy explored, the researcher could not assume that they were going to be effective. The control school was thus not a disadvantage. Ethical exploitation was also reduced by the researcher providing both the control and experimental (intervention) school the same explanation regarding objectives, aims, informed consent and confidentiality measures of the study. Resnick (2008) indicates withholding interventions from research subjects is ethical, provided that it does not lead to exploitation of individuals or groups.
4.8.2 Ethical Considerations
Permission to carry out this research (administration of the PSSM and FOS, interviews, lesson plans, workshops) was obtained from the Research Ethics and Higher Degrees Committees of the University of KwaZulu-Natal and the Department of Education. The research protocol received approval with reference number HSS/0316/09 (see Appendix 10, pg. 255). Written informed consent was obtained from participants (see Appendices, 1, pg.222, Appendices, 2, pg. 224 and Appendices 3, pg.225) and code names were given to each of them to ensure anonymity and confidentiality. The consent form had information about the topic, aim and objective of the research, method and procedure of data collection and storage. Participants were informed of their freedom to withdraw from the research at anytime of if they wished. They were equally assured of the confidentiality of information and
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anonymity of their identity. Anonymity of participants was achieved through assigning code names to learners. As the control school was not receiving the intervention the researcher had to be mindful of ethical implications Resnick (2008) indicates withholding interventions from research subjects is ethical, provided that it does not lead to exploitation of individuals or groups. The researcher thus indicated to the control school the broader implications of their involvement in the study and their contributing role to expanding knowledge of school connectedness. With their informed consent the researcher proceeded. As both the intervention and control schools were interested in the outcomes of the study, the researcher indicated that she would be responsible for reporting the findings to the respective schools once completed.
4.8.3 Storage of data
All interviews were tape recorded using a voice recorder and transcribed verbatim with the permission of participants. This will be kept safe for at least five years in a locked cupboard in the University of KwaZulu-Natal and destroyed afterwards. All completed questionnaires and lesson plan activity will be kept safely with the researcher.
4.9 Phase 1 : Situational Analysis / Social Assessment