LITERATURE REVIEW
2.2 UNDERSTANDING CRITICAL REFLECTION
2.2.1. The philosophical thread of critical reflection: Critical Social Theory
Critical reflection is underpinned within the philosophy of critical social theory and guided by the proponents of constructivism (Kinsella, 2007; Leonardo, 2004; Boud et al., 1985). After the First World War, philosophers from the Institute of Social Research, described as the Frankfurt School in Germany, combined their efforts in developing a social theory (Boychuk Duchscher, 2000; Romyn, 2000; Holter, 1988). Philosophers such as Horkheimer, Marx and Adorno attempted to resolve the previous unsuccessful attempts of combining capitalism and socialism by creating a new approach to social development which challenged previous truths and assumptions of knowledge and power at the time (Boychuk Duchscher, 2000; Romyn, 2000;
Lorenson, 1988; Mezirow, 1981). The purpose of the theory was to present a transformed way for social development, one that challenged the traditional assumptions of knowledge, truth and
25 power (Boychuk Duchscher, 2000; Hugh, 1989). Subsequent to this, Habermas (1987; 1978) further developed the theory and popularized it by explaining how it facilitates in understanding how individuals develop deep symbolic meanings by the way they interact with their world and uncover social disparities that may impede free social interaction (Kinsella, 2007; Boychuk Duchscher, 2000; Brookfield, 1995). In light of Habermas’ contribution, the critical social theory was regarded as a significant contributor in terms of emancipatory thinking and action among sociological thinkers (Parkin, 1996; Stevens, 1989; Holter, 1988).
Critical social theory became popularized in terms of the contribution it has had in interpreting social and human behavior. The epistemological stance of the theory maintains that knowledge is socially constructed and is relevant in the lived experiences of individuals (Boychuk Duchscher, 2000; Parkin, 1996; Brookfield, 1995; Campbell and Bunting, 1991). Within the humanistic paradigm of nursing, critical social theory is useful in terms of its practical significance and application to emancipatory attributes (Boychuk Duchscher, 2000). For Habermas, emancipatory practice was understood as being congruent with autonomy and responsibility (Boychuk Duchscher, 2000; Adler, 1997). Habermas’ work further expounds that emancipation and the behaviour thereof can be achieved through reflection, as the individual goes beyond the structurally frozen norms and ways of thinking towards a liberated way of reconstructing meaning and self knowledge (Brookfield, 1995; Lorenson, 1988; Mezirow, 1981).
Based on the philosophical underpinning of critical social theory, Argyris and Schön (1974) and Schön (1987; 1983) enlightened scholars on the work of critical reflection, especially in the field of education. Supporting the significance of critical social theory to nursing practice and nursing education, Boud, Keogh and Walker (1985); Argyris and Schön (1974); Boud and Walker
26 (1998); and Campbell and Bunting (1991) noted that reflective practice, which is underpinned on critical social theory, is seen to be emancipatory for professional development and thus changes and reforms society and societal issues and offers a new discourse of professional development.
Browne (2000) found that critical social theory is increasingly being used in nursing inquiry and offers an avenue for changing normative aspects of a phenomenon and thus serves a catalyst for empowerment and social transformation.
Thus within this philosophical base, critical social theory provides a deconstructive and constructive framework for the practice of critical reflection, as meaning is continuously altered by the individual. Kincheloe and McLaren, (1994 ) cited in Crowe and O’Malley (2006), describe the emergence of critical reflection as a process that involves deliberate dialogue and discourse. Critical reflection makes use of reflective procedures such as journals and reflective discourse sessions, which facilitate deconstructing and reconstructing social structures. This serves as a means of emancipating nursing by transforming the current practices into new behaviour, practices and beliefs. Similarly, Holmes, Cockburn-Wootten, Motion et al., (2005) favour the application of critical social theory as it facilitates the existing conditions with the aim of transforming knowledge and social contexts through the use of reaction and action. Moreover, Calhoun (1995) asserts that critical social encourages individuals to critically reflect on their experiences in a social context as a means of knowledge generation. Benner (1985) also encapsulated the significance of critical social theory and the emancipatory proponents of the theory to nursing practice by suggesting that through reflective practice the relationship of nursing theory and practice is made more meaningful.
27 2.2.2. The theoretical ties of John Dewey and Donald Schön
Most literature on the discourses of reflection and critical reflection refer to Donald Schön as being the key author for developing and popularizing the use of reflective practice, especially in the context of professional practice learning (Kinsella, 2007; Freshwater, 2004; Teekman, 2000).
There is also recognition, however, of the contribution of John Dewey (1933; 1916) in terms of reflective practice. Various authors have recognized John Dewey’s contribution of experiential learning in nursing education and the great similarities between Dewey and Schön’s interpretations of reflective practice (Erlandson and Beach, 2008; Kinsella, 2007). Donald Schön, who completed his doctoral dissertation on John Dewey’s Logic Theory, acknowledged that are great parallels between his work on reflective practice and Dewey’s assumptions on experiential learning in education (Kinsella, 2007). According to Dewey (1933), cited in Boud, Keogh and Walker (1985: 4), “while we cannot learn or be taught to think, we do have to think well, especially to acquire the habit of reflect”.
Using Dewey’s theory of inquiry as a framework, Schön theorized that reflective practice in education was a mechanism for the process of learning in organizations which ultimately led to the development of critical and self reflecting practices. As explained by Schön (1991), reflective practice allows an individual to link the process of thinking and seeking information to build a repertoire or collection of ideas, resources and practice examples that can be used for further action. Dewey’s theory of inquiry is also aligned to reflective practice, wherein the structured reflective action of “reflection on action”, which entails deliberately looking back on one’s experience, allows the individual practitioner to construct meaningful knowledge for future action (Schön, 1991; Boud et al., 1985).
28 Kinsella (2007) describes that like Dewey, Schön presents a view that challenges the traditional worldview that knowledge is generated from outside the individual, arguing that knowledge generation and the individual are intertwined. Moreover, Kinsella (2009; 2007); and Erlandson and Beach (2008) liken the work of Schön to Dewey by stating that as Dewey transformed education in terms of experiences of the learner and the educator, Schön draws attention to the experiential world of the practitioner in light of reflective practice and knowledge development.
Another similarity of Schön’s work to Dewey’s is in relation to experience and education, as both highlight that the individual is in a transactional relationship with their situation and can resolve problems by first returning to the experience of the practitioner (Timmins, 2008;
Erlandson and Beach, 2008).
While Schön’s work on reflective thinking was influenced by the earlier work of Dewey and Kolb’s (1984a) experiential learning, he did not only focus on the process of learning, but extended his theory to incorporate the outcome of the learning process (Teekman, 2000). In Schön’s seminal works, namely The Reflective Practitioner (1983) and Educating the Reflective Practitioner (1987), he challenges the previously held assumption called technical rationality.
This assumption states that professionals, who are natural problem solvers rely on technical means to solve their problems, should rather apply theory or scientific evidence to address challenging problems (Kinsella, 2009; Kinsella, 2007). Schön’s idea of reflective practice transforms the idea of technical rationality by presenting a new way of viewing professional knowledge as developed from the perspective of the practitioner, and reflected in the practitioner’s actions (Schön, 1987). Reflective thinking requires a continual evaluation of beliefs and assumptions about truths of the individual’s reality (Schon, 1983). Knowledge in the context of reflective practice was described as two entities, namely technical rationality and
29 professional artistry. Technical rationality refers to the knowledge that is gained through research or empirical evidence, while professional artistry refers to intuitive knowledge or “knowing”.
Schön’s notion of knowledge in terms of professional development was that the connection between theory and practice (technical rationality) was not enough and did not answer the demands of practice (Erlandson and Beach, 2008). It is further noted that both sources of knowledge (i.e. technical rationality and professional artistry) are essential in becoming a reflective practitioner (Boud and Walker, 1998; Boud et al., 1985; Schon, 1983). The concern of practice problems is not to be studied, but rather the problematic situations which are embedded in uncertainty (Boud et al., 1985). It is from this viewpoint that Schön developed his work on reflective practice, and coined two concepts which explained reflective practice, namely
“reflection in action”; which refers to the reflective thinking while an individual is in action, and
“reflection on action” which refers to reflection that occurs after the experience (Boud and Walker, 1998; Schon, 1983).
Against this background, Schön’s work offers an approach of practice through the formulation and analysis of a distinct structure of reflection in action (Rolfe, Freshwater and Jasper, 2001).
Schön (1983) stressed that individuals or professionals need to continuously change and transform in conjunction with the changes that the environment presents. Thus, the learning system (which may be defined as the environment in which the individual operates and functions) ought to be dynamic and capable of transforming. Schön believd that every individual has ways of knowing that offers them a way for change and learning (Kinsella, 2007; Boud et al., 1985). Schön (1983) further explains the reflective practice as “a process that involves looking at ones experiences, feelings and embedded theories and using all of this to build new
30 understandings to inform ones actions in the situation they may find themselves in.”(Schon, 1983: 152).
2.2.3. David Kolb’s Experiential Learning Theory and its influence on reflective practice Kolb’s experiential learning theory (1984a) provides a theoretical underpinning for critical reflections, since, as explained by Boud, Walker and Keogh (1985), reflective practice is hinged on looking back on experience and using it meaningfully to construct new learning. Therefore the experiential learning theory of Kolb plays an important role in the learning process of reflective practice (Kinsella, 2009; Budgen and Gamroth, 2008). According to Claxton (1988) and Claxton, Atikinson, Osborn et al., (1996), this theory is influenced by the earlier work of Rogers (1980), who stated that learning is a complex multifaceted process that involves the engagement of the whole person. This means that in order for deep learning to be achieved, the domains of behaviour, cognition and emotion must be supported in the learning style. Emerging from Roger’s proposition, Kolb’s experiential learning theory (1984a) added a concrete way of understanding how our previous experiences can be used to direct future behaviour. As noted by Høyrup (2004), discovering the relevance of experiences is necessary and plays an important role in the learning process.
Kolb’s work in developing the process of experiential learning stems from the work of Dewey (1933; 1916), Lewin’s (1951) social change model cited in Cummings and Worley (2005) emphasize the central role that experiences has in the learning process. Kolb’s continuous model, which reflects learning as a process, is noted for being contrary to other cognitive or rationalistic learning theories which assumes that learning is an acquisition and recall of abstract symbols (Tate and Sills, 2004). The four constructs or steps in the process of learning as noted by Kolb
31 include; an exposure to a concrete experience; reflective observations; processing of information through abstraction and conceptualization and, lastly, initiating active experimentation (Kolb, 1984a). Due to the process being cyclical, Kolb’s theory purports that there is no starting or ending point in the experiential learning process.
Aligned to critical reflective practice, Kolb’s theory places value on the learners experiences, thus supporting Dewey (1933; 1916) and Schön’s (1983) recognition of the experience based nature of reflective practice and the cognitive, emotive and behavioral aspects of the learning process embedded in reflective practice. Furthermore, the two cardinal tenants of critical reflective practice which are looking “back on previous experiences” and “learning” such that previous mistakes and assumptions are revisited are congruent with Kolb’s theory (Kinsella, 2007; Rolfe et al., 2001; Michelson, 1996).