AND SURVEY PROCEDURES FOLLOWED TO
CHAPTER 7: IMPACT EVALUATION OF THE ON-FARM RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY DISSEMINATION PROGRAMME
5.2 Procedures and methods followed in the on-farm research programme
locally available agricultural products and cropping systems that enrich soils (Onyango et al., 1998). In Malawi soil fertility technologies adopted by farmers also improved maize production (Snapp et al., 2002).
Researcher, farmer and extension staff need to thoroughly study the small-scale farming system and the identified constraints before the initiation of a research programme (Tripp &
Woolley, 1989 and Harrington, 1995). Such a study would simultaneously include the identification of possible solutions (Norman & Douglas, 1994), which is determined by the availability of skills and scientific information (Baur & Kradi, 2001). It is also important to realize that for many farmers, experimentation is a way of life in order to ensure survival (Schiere, 1996). Thus the knowledge and skills of rural people that have allowed them to survive over many years need to be included as possible solutions for any intervention programme. The final stage therefore in planning on-farm trials is to prioritize new technology options and possible solutions to be used by farmers to enable them to better their current situation through the modification of current production practices which will result in an increase in agricultural productivity and incomes.
To address the agricultural constraints identified by the people of Obonjaneni during the diagnostic study and for research to have an impact in a rural community, a demand-driven on-farm research and technology dissemination programme was applied by the Farming Systems Research Section (FSRS) of the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs. An overview of the following activities followed between 1998 and 2002 will be presented:
• procedures and methods followed in the on-farm research programme;
• results of the on-farm research programmes;
• interaction with and feedback from farmers.
rolling broken terrain of moderate to steep slopes (Camp, 1995). The Tugela river, one of the main rivers in KwaZulu-Natal, runs through Obonjaneni, with the communal cropping fields situated between the river and the residential area.
Two distinct groups in Obonjaneni, namely the Amazizi Maize Association and the Phuthumani Community Garden, were the main partners in the on-farm research and technology dissemination programme. They were the farmers who mainly attended meetings and volunteered to participate in the research programme in terms of making fields or plots available and assisting in the planting, management and harvesting of trials and in organising the technology dissemination events.
To strengthen the technology-development component of the FSRS, scientists and technicians from the Soil Fertility Section, based at Cedara, became permanently involved in the research programme. Scientists and technicians from the Natural Resources, Agronomy, Crop Protection (Weed Control), Pastures, Horticulture and Animal Science Sections, all based at Cedara, were eo-opted to the programme when their inputs were needed. The involvement of the on-station scientists and technicians was an ideal opportunity to link on-station research programmes with small-scale farmer agriculture,as well as with Extension staff.
Twenty small-scale farmers, the Induna (Headman), Extension and FSRS staff attended the first research planning meeting on 22 September 1998. The Amazizi Maize Association allocated approximately 1.5 ha in the middle of the unutilised 40 ha communal cropping fields for the trials. The identified site was found suitable, for the following reasons, it was:
a) located close to the main tarred road passing through Obonjaneni;
b) visible to the majority of people in the community;
c) relatively easy to reach for the majority of the community;
d) representative (in terms of soil type and fertility) of the communal fields available to the small-scale farmers for growing crops.
Because the trials were conducted in the communal fields and due to the representativeness of the site, it was decided that the one field was sufficient for the trials. However,when working with individualfarmers, it was the view ofAsopa& Beye (1997) that on-farm research should be conducted on an adequate number of farmers' fields. This could allow for representativeness of the production situation and for different socio-economic conditions
within an area and would increase the statistical reliability of the results.
5.2.2 Research protocols
The principal objective of the on-farm research approach was to revive agriculture in Obonjaneni. To achieve this, fanners requested several research trials, each with its specific objective. For each research trial conducted, a responsible officer and eo-workers compiled a research protocol, which included objectives and the methodology to be followed. Annually, the responsible officer compiled a progress report of each trial, covering the data collected for the particular season. The author of this thesis, who led the team in the approach followed in Obonjaneni, quoted, where indicated, the research conducted by scientists and technicians from a completeness point of view to point outthe extent and type of work that was carried out to adhere to the demands of fanners and to address constraints identified by them.
5.2.3 Crop trials conducted over four seasons
The constraints identified during the diagnostic phase (see Chapter 4) were used as the basis for planning the on-farm crop research programme with inputs from fanners and Extension staff. The cropping trials and demonstrations conducted over four seasons (1998/1999 to 2001/2002) are summarised in Table 5.1.
Table 5.1 Summary of the on-farm research trials conducted in the communal cropping fields over four seasons (1998/1999 to 2001/2002) in Obonjaneni
Season 1 1998/1999 Maize: lime x cultivar Dry bean: lime x cultivar
Season 2 199912000 Maize: lime x cultivar Dry bean: lime x cultivar Evaluation of maize cultivars for green maize Vegetable soyabean and cowpeas as alternative crops
Season 3 2000/2001 Maize: lime x cultivar Dry bean:lime x cultivar Maize:effect of planting date on yield
Potatoes: cultivar and cultural practices
Season 4 200112002 Maize: lime x fertilizer x cultivar
Dry bean:lime x cultivar Maize:effect of planting date on yield
Maize: planting without ploughing demonstration Potatoes:cultivarand cultural practices Vegetable soyabean as alternative crop
Planning meetings that were open to the entire community, but were attended mainly by members of the Amazizi Maize Association and Phuthumani Community Garden, were held annually prior to the start of the cropping season (see Plate 5.1). The purpose of the meetings
was to discuss results from the previous season's trials, constraints and possible solutionsto be tested in the on-farm trials. The annual feedback meetings of research results are summarized and presented in Table 5.7. The poor state of agriculture and the apparent absence ofleader farmers when the FSRS arrived in Obonjaneni in 1997,and the farmers own programme and involvement in their fields, contributed to the decision to use researcher- designed and researcher-managed trials, as classified by Biggs (1989).Itwas requested during the meetings that the farmers and Extension staff assist during the planting, management and harvesting of trials.
During the planning meetings an ex ante evaluation (Norman et al., 1994) showed that people interested in participating in the on-farm trials wanted to produce enough crops for their own consumption first and then to sell the surplus, mainly to people in the community. It was anticipated that surplus maize could also be sent to a maize mill run by the Upper Tugela Farmers' Association, approximately 15 km from Obonjaneni.
The objectives and a summary of the treatments of the maize, dry bean, vegetable soyabean and cowpeas and potato trials are summarised in Tables 5.2. Information of the trials conducted will be discussed per season.
5.2.3.1 Season1 (1998/1999)
At the first planning meeting, farmers requested maize (Zea rnaysL.) and dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) trials to identify suitable cultivars for the community, with high yields as an important criterion (see Plates 5.2 and 5.3). Itwas suggested by scientists, in view of the soil acidity constraints in the area (as identified by soil samples taken during the first visit to the community), that lime needed to be included as a treatment. According to the soil analysis, a lime application level of 10 t/ha was required for optimum maize yield in the communal cropping fields (see Plate 5.4). The cost to a farmer to apply lOt lime/ha was calculated to be R3800lha (taken at RI9.50/50kg bag, as paid by the Amazizi Maize Association members in the 200212003 season and disregarding transport difficulties and transport costs). The high cost of lime would be unaffordable to the majority of small-scale farmers in the area.
However, it was important in the first season to demonstrate the effect of lime on acidic soil and thereby to determine the potential for maize production in the area. Itmust be taken into consideration that farmers develop high expectations when something is done on their farms and their curiosity should be satisfied as quickly as possible if their support and assistance are to be maintained (Femandez, 1991).
Plate 5.1
Plate5.2
Plate5.3
Planning and feedback meetings were held annually, prior to the new cropping season
Lime x fertilizer x cultivar maize trial in communal cropping area
Dry bean trial to test the response of different cultivars to lime on acid soils
Plate 5.4
Plate 5.5
Plate 5.6
Soil analysis indicated that a lime level of 10 tlha was required for optimum maize yield in communal cropping fields (maize grown under 0 lime in the foreground and 10 tlha in the background)
FSR Section staff demonstrate the effect of lime compared with no lime on yield performance of vegetablesin the community garden
Farmers participated in planting maize trials in the communal cropping fields
Plate 5.7
Plate 5.8
Plate 5.9
Farmers realized that Obonjaneni has the potential for good maize production
In the absence of lime it could be more profitable for farmers to plant their own seed (Mr Mbongwa,a farmer,supplied his own acidity-resistant maize seed for the trials)
Plate 5.10
Plate 5.11
Plate 5.12
On-farm researc showed that cabbages coul be pro uced successfully and profitably in the community garden
A "Family Drip Irrigation System" tested in the community garden
Plate 5.13
Plate 5.14
Plate 5.15
Fence erected by the community to re-establish a camping system to implement a veld management system
Livestock owners discussing practical aspects of animal health care
Technology transfer during trial activities,such as harvesting
Plate 5.16
Plate 5.17
Plate 5.18
Fanners and researchers discussing good cultivation practices in maize
Feedback of trial results to community members
Illustrations or practical demonstrations had a high impact in terms of interest shown and questions asked by the farmers
Plate 5.19
Plate 5.20
Plate 5.21
Pupils from the local secondary school attended the farmers' field days
The Amazizi Maize Association used their initiative, their own money and spent time erecting a fence to protect the communal cropping fields from livestock
Table 5.2 Summary of the objectives and treatments of the crop trials conducted III
Obonjaneni between 1998 and 2002
Crop trials Objectives Treatments
Season 4 To determine the optimum time of planting own seed and to determine the grain yield of own seed when planted at different planting dates (Madiba&de Villiers,2001/2002).
Effect of planting date on maize yield:
Season 3 To determine the optimum time of planting local farmer seed and to determine grainyield when planted very early, early,late and very late (Metho, 2000/200 Ia).
Maizetrials:
SeasonI
Season 2 Season 3 Season4
To assess various maize cultivars and to demonstrate the use of fertilizers,lime and good cultivationpractices to local farmers (Roberts,1998/1999).
To assess various maize cultivars and to demonstratethe use of fertilizers, lime and good cultivation practicesto local farmers (Roberts, 1999/2000a).
To assess variousmaize cultivarsand to demonstrate the use of fertilizers, lime and good cultivation practices to local farmers (Roberts,2000/200 I).
To assess variousmaize cultivars and to demonstratethe use of fertilizers,lime and good cultivationpracticesto local farmers (Roberts, 2001/2002).
Sixteencultivars included a local variety("Zulu" seed).Lime levels: 0& 10 t/ha.Split plot design and two replications.Same fertilizer applied to all treatments according to recommendations basedon soil analysis.AgMag1applied to the zero lime plots to avoid a Mg deficiency limiting yield (Seasons I to 4). Statistical analysis of trial data (Seasons 1 to 4) was conducted using analysisof variance (ANOVA) and meanseparations werebased on the LSD at the 5 and I%level of probability using Genstat 5.2.
Four cultivars included a local variety ("Zulu" seed). Lime levels:0&10 t/ha.Split plotdesignand eightreplications.
Eight cultivarsincluded two local varieties ("Zulu"seed).Lime levels:0,3,6 and 9 t/ha.Split plot design with three replications.
Six cultivars, included an acid-resistant, and a local variety ("Zulu"seed).A further treatment of acultivar planted without any N fertilizer. Lime levels: 0, 3, 6 and 9 t/ha. Three replications.
Cultivar: farmer's own seed.Planting dates: 15 Nov,30 Nov,5 Dec and 15 Jan. Cultivation practices were the same (lime and fertilizer applied according to recommendations) for all treatments(Seasons 3&4).
Cultivar • farmers' own seed. Planting dates: 15 Nov, 30 Nov, 14 Dec and 28 Dec 2001. Two replications per planting date.
Eightcultivars.Lime levels:0,7& 14 t/ha.Replicatedsplit-plot design. Same fertilizer applied to all treatments according to recommendations based on soil analysis,in addition all zero lime plots were treated withAglvlag'atan equivalent rate to avoid Mg deficiency (Seasons 1,3&4).Yield data were subjected to an ANOVA analysisusing Genstat 5 (Seasons land 3).
Six cultivarsof which two cultivars contained either"high"(10 mglkg) or"low" (0.4 mglkg) Mo seed reserves.Lime levels:0, 5,7 and 10 t/ha.Split-plot designwith two replications.
Four cultivars. Lime levels: 0, 5, 7 and 10 tons/ha. Four replications.After planting it was discovered that the treatment plotswere not exactlywhere they were from the original layout, as used during the previous season. The problem was communicated to the farmers. No statistical analysis was conducted.
Onevegetable soyabean cultivar and one cowpea cultivar. Lime rates: 0 and 10 t/ha.Early planting:on 28 Dec 1999 and late planting on 20 Jan 2000. Fertilizer applied according to recommended rates. Treatments in a simple split-plot arrangement and in un-replicated blocks.No statistical analysis was conducted.
One vegetable soyabean cultivar planted.Lime levels: 0, I,2 and 3 t/ha. Four replications. Fertilizer applied according to recommended rates.
To determine responseof dry bean cultivars to lime on acid soils (Thibaud,2000/2001).
To evaluate and quantify the yield of dry bean cultivars and to demonstrate and recommend economic lime rates and suitable production practices (Khubone & Metho, 2001/2002).
To introduce an alternative crop which is protein-rich to small-scale farmers and to test and evaluatethe performance of vegetable soyabean planted at different lime rates (Madiba&Metho 200I/2002a).
To evaluate the yield potentialof 10 potato cultivarsand to
establish good cultivationpractices (Metho,2000/200Ib). Ten cultivars.Threereplications.Lime was applied at 4.5t/ha and fertilizer according to recommendation. Spraying of recommended fungicides when necessary. Not statistical analysed (Seasons 3&4)
To evaluatethe yield potential of I?potatoc~ltivarsand to Ten cultivars.Threereplications.Same plots usedasin Season demonstrate good cultivationpractices (Madiba& Metho 3. Fertilizer according to recommendation. Spraying of
2001/2002b). recommended fungicides when necessary.
Season 3
Drybeans trials: ,
SeasonI To determine responseof dry bean cultivars to lime on acid soils (Thibaud,1998/1999).
Season 4
Vegetable soya bean and cowpeas:
Season 2 To evaluate the performance of vegetable soyabean, as a new alternative crop,and cowpeas,under two soil acidity situations at an early and late planting date (Metho, 1999/2000).
Season 4
Potatoes:
Season 3
Season4
SeasonI 1998/1999;Season 2 1999/2000;Season 3 2000/2001;Season 4 200112002
'Aglvlag=Magnesium Oxide (One of the cheapest forms ofMg fertilizerand also has a slight liming action)
As part of the evaluation of the dry bean trial the five different cultivars were not only evaluated in terms of yield but also taste. The Home Economist of the Bergville Extension office assisted and prepared the dry bean cultivars, numbered from A to E, with only salt added. Paper plates and spoons were available to the taste panel of 30 community members.
The voting sheet (in Zulu) enabled farmers to rank the beans from 1 to 5, where 1 was best and 5 worst. The cultivar with the lowest score was thus the preferred one.
FSRS, Extension staff and farmers, agreed upon the following arrangements for the first seasons trials:
1. that the FSRS supply all the inputs i.e.seed,fertilizer, lime and pegs;
11. that the Extension office supply the tractor and be responsible for the land preparation;
111. that the Amazizi Maize Association members contribute their own seed (local variety or "Zulu" seed) for inclusion in the trials and organise a back-up tractor if needed;
IV. that the local Agricultural Development Technician determine the planting dates, in collaboration with the farmers;
5.2.3.2 Season 2(1999/2000)
The number of maize cultivars was reduced from 16 to four, with high yields and high acid resistance, as measured during Season 1 (Table 5.2), as selection criteria. The same site was used and lime was not applied during Season 2. A separate area was made available by the farmers to screen seven maize cultivars (local variety included) for green maize. A maize tasting event was held just before livestock destroyed the trial.
The dry bean trial did not take place due to the area being sprayed by mistake with the herbicide Atrazine, which is toxic to dry bean production for up to an 18-month period.
The ARC, Summer Grain Institute in Potchefstroom, requested the staff from the FSRS to evaluate the performance of vegetable soyabean (Glycine max. L.) as a potential alternative food crop to supplement the diet of people in rural communities. Vegetable soyabean is a very large-seeded soyabean that is eaten like green peas from freshly harvested green vegetable soyabean pods. They are nutritious and an exceptionally good source of protein. The green beans can be consumed (as done with groundnuts and other nuts) directly after the pods were
boiled in water or could be added to many foods (Birch,2002). After discussions with farmers in a planning meeting, vegetable soyabean and cowpeas (Vignia unguiculata 1.) where included in the trials for Season 2.
5.2.3.3Season 3 (2000/2001)
The family, and also members of the Amazizi Maize Association, whose fields were used during the first two seasons, indicated that they required the field for their own use. The Amazizi Maize Association allocated a new site, approximately 500 m from the previous site and located within a newly fenced-off irrigation scheme of 2.29 ha. Six farmers, who were also members of the Amazizi Maize Association, used the scheme. However, due to a broken pump the area could not be irrigated during this season. Moving the on-farm trials inside a fenced area was perhaps beneficial in terms of protection from possible livestock damage, but could unintentionally have excluded many people of the community from the trials.
Due to the change in trial site, it was important to repeat the maize and dry bean trials conducted during the previous seasons. An important change in the maize trial, as was envisaged and discussed with farmers, was the inclusion and application of different lime levels. A summary of the treatments is given in Table 5.2.
Farmers in the community requested a follow-up trial on vegetable soyabeans, but this was not possible due to the unavailability of seed.
It was learnt during the diagnostic study and also observed over the first two seasons that people in the community use various planting dates for maize. Through discussions, and an informal survey,farmers gave the following reasons for planting maize at different times:
I. their unawareness of the negative effect of late planting on yield;
11. the avoidance of stalk-borer infestation;
111. the fact that contractors come late to prepare fields.
The effect of planting date on maize yield wasan aspect that needed attention. The objectives and treatments of the trials are summarized in Table 5.2.
At the planning meeting for Season 3, eight farmers and members of the Amazizi Maize Association showed interest in testing some of the technology used in the trials. Researcher- designed and farmer-managed trials (Biggs, 1989) were laid out in eight farmers' fields. The