Chapter 4: Methodology and approach to analysis
4.1 Theoretical framework
4.1.4 Recognising meanings
One of the challenges of this study, as mentioned briefly in Chapter 2, is creating a system for eliciting meanings and being confident that meanings are being recognised and interpreted correctly. How can the researcher be confident that a piece of text refers to a meaning or set of meanings? Meaning per se is difficult to measure since meanings are held individually and personally. According to Blumer (1969), the social world is essentially made up of acting units, or, the individual. It is the individual who designates and appraises objects or ‘things’, designates meanings and makes decisions. However, meanings are exposed when actors’ intentional states are realized through their participation in the system of meaning negotiation that is inherent in culture. Indicators of meaning such as symbols and emotions can be expressed verbally (Kaltenborn 1997; see Table 4.2) and, according to Strauss & Corbin (1998), respondents are typically reliable in providing good descriptions of their observations and experiences.
Meaning thereby achieves a form that is socially situated, i.e., public and communal, rather than private (Bruner 1990). With certain interview techniques it is possible to expose what people think and feel about events and experiences through their representations in verbal and written accounts, as well as other forms of expression.
Table 4.2. A schematic of four dimensions of human systems. Meanings can be elicited through appropriate interpretation when actors participate in the exterior dimensions. Adapted from Maiteny (2000).
Interior (‘in-the-mind’) Exterior (‘in-the-context’) Individual Intention; volition motivation; choice;
subjective; invisible; psychological;
emotional; experiential.
Individual behaviour and expression;
objective; visible; biological; material.
Collective Shared frameworks of interpretation and meaning; (inter)subjective; invisible;
cultural/symbolic; e.g. religious and political ideologies, values, beliefs.
Group expression; effects on context (e.g. of behaviour); (inter)objective;
visible; social; ecological; economic;
institutional structures; political expression, debate.
A range of literature dealing with meanings was consulted to derive classes of meanings and their descriptions (Table 4.3).
Table 4.3. Fourteen categories of meanings relevant to ecosystem services (nature-based benefits) based on a literature review.
Meaning category/dimension
Interpretation/attributes References
Identity Sense of pride, uniqueness, definition, detail and distinctiveness of the landscape: to distinguish self from others.
Those dimensions of the self that define the individual’s personal identity in relation to the physical environment. The landscape is a means of creating and maintaining one’s self and self-esteem. The landscape is also important for creating shared meaning or group identity.
Williams et al. (1992)
Twigger-Ross & Uzzell (1996) Oreszczyn & Lane (2000) Gustafson (2001)
Dependence Recreation satisfaction. The potential of a landscape to satisfy the needs and goals of an individual and the assessment of how this landscape compares with other available settings that may satisfy the same set of needs.
Self-efficacy: landscape supports lifestyle and effectiveness in goal achievement
Williams et al. (1992)
Twigger-Ross & Uzzell (1996)
Sustenance Sustenance – providing a flow of tangible goods and services Davenport & Anderson (2005) Sense of community Community involvement; shared space; friendships, social connections and
interactions (formal and informal).
Attitudes towards the natural landscape are linked to attachment to community.
Hannam (1997) Gustafson (2001) Beckley (2003) Clarke & Stein (2003) Manzo & Perkins (2006) Walker & Ryan (2008) Lawrence et al. (2010) Links with the past Link with history, giving a sense of history and humanity being part of the landscape.
Links with previous and future generations / family members
Having lived in or visited the landscape for a long time, and sometimes across generations.
Memories, including childhood memories Nostalgia
Twigger-Ross & Uzzell (1996) Hannam (1997)
Kaltenborn (1997) Le Maitre et al. (1997) Oreszczyn & Lane (2000) Gustafson (2001)
Davenport & Anderson (2005) Manzo (2005)
Contribution to Diversity, perspective and pattern, visual presence, boundaries creating the unexpected Dwyer et al. (1991)
landscape pattern across time and space
(and the notion of mystery). Changing colours, sounds and scents across seasons. Oreszczyn & Lane (2000) Gustafson (2001)
Landscape intimacy Sense of the character of the landscape; Intimacy with landscape features.
Depth of direct experience with settings, personal connection.
(‘sense of place’)
Oreszczyn & Lane (2000) Manzo (2003)
Brown & Raymond (2007) Lawrence et al. (2010) Therapy Therapeutic, boosting, pure enjoyment, tonic, healing, restorative, health-giving,
beneficial.
Davenport & Anderson (2005).
Bratman et al. (2012) Planning, care and
management
Association with perceived approach to landscape planning and management Oreszczyn & Lane (2000) Ryan (2005)
Manzo & Perkins (2006) Walker & Ryan (2008) Wildlife sanctuary Visual and personal pleasure of seeing wildlife and plants. Returning to nature. Oreszczyn & Lane (2000)
Gustafson (2001)
Davenport & Anderson (2005) Ryan (2005)
Lawrence et al. (2010) Scenic beauty Appreciation based on a preference for idealised naturalistic scenery; traditional
emphasis on the visual, the dramatic, the picturesque and formal composition of the attributes of nature. Deriving pleasure from the landscape irrespective of its ecological integrity.
Wood (1988) in Gobster (1999) Gobster (1999)
Ecological value Ecologically significant landscapes (which may be aesthetically ordinary), or perceived beauty in the landscape associated with ecological health, diversity and/or sustainability. The ‘ecological aesthetic’.
Le Maitre et al. (1997) Gobster (2008) Commodity An appreciation of a landscape as a managed production system - for how it may be
changed to serve human needs via the production of goods and services.
Le Maitre et al. (1997) Gobster (1999) Gobster et al. (2007) Sense of purpose Engagement in purposeful occupation/activity that provides social, health and spiritual
benefit; restores value and purpose to life. Can exercise choice (i.e. have control over ones activities and aspirations). Occupation encompasses doing, being, belonging and becoming.
Hammell (2004)