Our review of urban mesocarnivores allowed us to evaluate global trends and knowledge gaps that persist globally. Studies on urban mammalian carnivores have increased rapidly in the past two decades (Chapter 2), representing a general expansion of the field and surge in research interest (Magle et al., 2012). Our review reveals a bias in the research targets when urban mesocarnivore studies have been conducted (Chapter 2). The majority of studies in urban areas has focused on several mesocarnivore species belonging to North America (e.g., Canis latrans) and Europe (e.g., Vulpes vulpes). This is despite Africa, Asia and South America supporting the majority of mammalian mesocarnivores species (McDonald, Kareiva & Forman, 2008) and that these areas are rapidly becoming urbanised. The conspicuous exclusion of urban mesocarnivore research in developing countries requires addressing to prevent further lags in global conservation efforts.
The second objective was to use Global Positioning System (GPS) telemetry data to investigate the home range of the three mongoose species (large grey, water and white-tailed) in the KZN Midlands natural habitat and farmland mosaic landscape (Chapter 3). This study is the first to provide evidence for the home range requirements of the three species using GPS telemetry in the KZN Midlands. GPS data indicated that the home range sizes for white-tailed mongoose (Chapter 3) were similar to those found in past studies (Admasu et al., 2004; Skinner
& Chimimba, 2005). As a consequence of their relatively small home ranges, white-tailed mongooses obtained their necessary resources without extensive foraging ventures. In contrast, the home range size estimations obtained in the present study for the telemetered large grey and water mongoose species (Chapter 3) were substantially larger than presented previously
172
(Maddock, 1988; Skinner & Chimimba, 2005). The previously recorded small home range sizes could be attributed to two factors. Firstly, there has been an improvement in tracking technologies through GPS tracking, and these technological improvements have allowed for continuous and accurate monitoring of collared individuals, even in relatively hostile environments (Cooke et al., 2004; Kays et al., 2015). GPS tracking technology, therefore, provides a more accurate representation of the spatial ecology of its collared individuals.
Secondly, the increase in anthropogenic fragmentation of landscapes subsequently reduces natural areas available for wildlife. Landscapes have become dominated by expansive levels of monoculture farming, with intermittent pockets of refugia scattered around agricultural landscapes (Streicher, Ramesh & Downs, 2020). Individuals, therefore, may be forced to increase their foraging expeditions, and thus their home ranges, to obtain resources from these intermittent pockets. Although the three species are characterised by having generalist diets and can switch between available resources, they still show dietary preferences (Maddock, 1988; Baker, 1989; Rowe-Rowe, 1992; Skinner & Chimimba, 2005; Do Linh San et al., 2020).
These dietary preferences enable each species to occupy a differential niche and thereby reduce the potential for interspecific competition when co-inhabiting areas (Chapter 3).
In line with our third objective, we also used GPS telemetry data to investigate the home range and habitat use of the water mongooses in the urban residential matrix of the Upper Highway Area, eThekwini Municipality, KZN (Chapter 4). This study is the first to provide evidence of spatial ecology using GPS telemetry in an urban setting for this species. Home range sizes for urban water mongooses illustrated individual variation; however, they were constricted to natural refugia (Durban Metropolitan Open Space Systems (D'MOSS)) within the mosaic (Chapter 4). Water mongooses appeared to have high population densities in these
"Green Spaces" within the urban mosaic, avoiding built-up urban areas in favour of fragments of forest and bushland habitat types close to natural water.
173
In terms of behaviour, we found there were high levels of spatial overlap between females, and female-with-male water mongooses (Chapter 3). Male water mongooses displayed territorial behaviour with limited spatial overlap between other urban male mongooses despite their restricted home ranges. The home range size for all three home range estimation measures (MCP, KDE and LoCoH) were significantly smaller than results obtained in the KZN Midlands natural habitat and farmland mosaic study (Chapter 3). The study accentuates the species' general adaptive nature which enables it to persist in an urban residential matrix. However, urbanisation is a significant threat to the species because they rely upon the D'MOSS green spaces for essential resources. Water mongooses are unlikely to become true urban exploiters, but instead, we expect them to persist in the remaining isolated natural fragments of natural refugia in and on the edge of the urban matrix landscape.
Our online survey questionnaire enabled us to assess public perceptions and threats that mammalian mesocarnivores face across a land-use gradient (rural–urban). Our multi-species approach in the survey (Chapter 5) allowed us to reveal the discrepancy in how species are impacted disproportionately by Human-Wildlife Interactions (HWI). We find that the "one size fits all" approach is no longer holds for wildlife conservation (Ripple et al., 2017; Trajçe et al., 2019). A wide variety of different opinions were held by participants that reside in rural or urban landscapes—the majority of respondents from both land-use types considered medium- sized mammalian carnivores not to be threatening and are indeed vital for the environment (Chapter 5). However, not all mesocarnivores were perceived equally: black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas) were often singled out as a problematic pest species by rural respondents.
Consequently, black-backed jackals face additional anthropogenic pressures of targeted human persecution. Smaller and more behaviourally flexible mesocarnivores (mongoose species and cape genet Genetta tigrina) were the most sighted species in both land-use types indicating a
174
potential population increases through "mesocarnivore release" (Roemer, Gompper & Van Valkenburgh, 2009).
Moreover, we were able to identify that collisions with vehicles were the primary cause of fatality in mesocarnivores in both land-use types (Chapter 5). By comparing rural and urban HWI with mammalian mesocarnivores along a land-use gradient allowed us to recognise trends in perspectives and threats. Management practitioners can acknowledge these similarities and equip themselves in establishing implementable strategies to safeguard mesocarnivores.
Urban water mongoose dietary composition was broad but was dominated by three major food categories (crustaceans, invertebrates and rodents) (Chapter 6). Previous literature shows that crustaceans are the dominant and primary food type when available in freshwater systems (Rowe-Rowe, 1978; du Toit, 1980; Louw & Nel, 1986; Maddock, 1988; Baker, 1989).
The generalist dietary habits of urban water mongooses allow them to exploit resources that are readily available in the urban environment (Chapter 6). Water mongooses' ability to easily exploit available resources in a variety of habits, supplements current literature on the species' dietary flexibility (Rowe-Rowe, 1978; Maddock, 1988; Do Linh San et al., 2020). Seasonal variations in mongooses dietary intake were only present for crustaceans and invertebrates. The subtropical climate the study site experiences may be a possible explanation for the potential lack of seasonal variation in diet. Evidence of the use of anthropogenic resources (cigarette butts, plastic and old chicken bones) was present in scats of urban water mongoose. The supplementation of water mongoose diets with anthropogenic resources was highest during the winter months (Chapter 6), indicating the species resourcefulness during lean months, but also the lack of natural dietary resources in this modified environment. Similarly, urban cape genets showed increased use of anthropogenic resources in winter (Widdows & Downs, 2015).
175