RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
4.2.3 Research sample
In this section, I discuss and justify the research sample that I used for my study. A research sample is a small portion of the population that a researcher selects to study (Cohen et al., 2011;
Nieuwenhuis, 2007; Sarantakos, 2005). Researchers use samples when doing research because it is often impractical to generate data from every member in a particular community (all history learners in the case of this study) due to the number of people being too large. Furthermore, when researching aspects of human beings such as views, perceptions or behaviour, researchers simply cannot generate data from every single individual. Instead they choose a smaller sample of individuals that represent the larger group.
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There are different sampling methods from which researchers can chose. This selection obviously depends on the study’s research objectives and the characteristics of the study population, such as size and diversity, to determine which types of sampling methods to select.
Since my selection consisted of two different sets of samples which were, the four chosen schools and learners within the schools, I felt that the use of purposive and convenience sampling techniques were most suitable. Both these sampling techniques are types of non- probability sampling in which I intentionally selected or simply hand-picked participants based on her/his judgment and that those participants contained specific characteristics being sought and regarded relevant to the study (Cohen et al., 2011). The reasons behind choosing these sampling techniques will be explained in the next paragraphs.
The use of purposive sampling for this study, is in line with Rubin and Babbie’s (2010) thinking which indicates that a sample is based on the researchers’ own judgment about which schools are most representative or useful. Based on these thoughts I selected the four schools for this study. These schools were purposively chosen to satisfy the demands of my study. In other words, I selected these schools because I wanted a range of differing environments to be represented. Hence, although all four schools are located in urban areas I chose different types of schools which can be placed in different categories and cater for different social groupings as can be gleaned from the information lower down.
Furthermore, convenience sampling was used to select the learners involved in this study.
Convenience sampling is one of the main types of non-probability sampling methods and involves using participants in a study because they are convenient and available. In fact, learners chosen for my study were actually selected by the history educator at each of the schools under study as a form of convenience. In other words, I explained the study in detail to the history educators as discussed lower down and entrusted them with the task of selecting the learners for my study. According to the history educators after carefully explaining the study to their history learners they asked for volunteers to be a part of the study and if they were available after school hours in some cases. Furthermore, before I began field-work at each of the schools I also reiterated to my participants that their participation was completely on a voluntary basis, which they also justified. Hence, convenience sampling proved to be most appropriate for this study because of the ease of participants volunteering and their availability.
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Thus, purposive and convenience sampling of my participants was done as supported by Rule and John (2011) who state that participants are deliberately chosen because of their suitability in advancing the purpose of the study. Though the size of my sample was small, which could be perceived as a weakness, it was still appropriate for my study as a qualitative research study.
My purpose in this study was, to gain an understanding of how history learners view history as a school subject and why they view it the way they do, and therefore the size of the sample was deemed appropriate.
However, the disadvantages of convenience sampling is the risk that it might not represent the population as a whole, and might be biased by the selection of volunteers. I think this issue was addressed in this study through using different types of schooling environments as discussed above and in more detail below. Furthermore, a disadvantage of purposive sampling is the high probability of researcher bias, as each sample is based on the judgment of the researcher in question, who generally is trying to prove a specific point. However, for the purposes of this study I was able to overcome this issue because I used a variety of methods to build and increase my research data and also had the history teachers collaborating with me in selecting research participants. The next section describes the chosen research sites which are the four schools and the choice of the participants for the study in more detail.
4.2.3.1 Choice of schools
The school is a social institution entrusted with the responsibility of continuing and supplementing the process of socialisation begun at home. As an institution, the school has to have rules and regulations which facilitate socialisation and effective learning (Mwamwenda, 1995). Therefore, schools do not operate in isolation as they form part of the social structures that are found within communities and are thus, influenced by both communities and the context of their environment.
As such, schools are educational institutions where learners are educated by teachers. Schools serve a number of functions in our society which include transmitting academic knowledge, socialisation and the transmission of cultural norms and values. The South African education system consists of three types of schools which are: independent schools, government schools
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and governing body-funded public schools (Ex-Model C). In addition, all South African public schools are categorised into five groups, called quintiles, largely for purposes of the allocation of financial resources. Quintile one is the ‘poorest’ while quintile five is the ‘least poor.’ These poverty rankings are determined nationally according to the poverty of the community around the school, as well, as certain infrastructural factors. Furthermore, schools in quintile 1, 2 and 3 have been declared no-fee schools, while schools in quintiles 4 and 5 are fee-paying schools.
For the purposes of this research I used government schools and Ex-model C schools only.
This was justified lower down. In South Africa we have two levels of schooling, the primary and the secondary levels. For the purposes of this study I focused on grade 11 learners, hence the secondary level of schooling is pertinent to my study. The secondary level of schooling includes grade 10, 11 and 12. At this stage of schooling learners generally choose the subjects that they will pursue for this level. It is in this context of schooling that this study is situated.
Chapter 2 dealt with literature based on schools and subjects.
The research site for this study focused upon four specific secondary schools in KwaZulu-Natal province. The reasoning behind the specified research sites is to produce a variable spectrum of results dealt with on a regular basis rather than a confined set of results that ignore more complex or diverse environments. Two of the four schools that were selected are coeducational schools while the other two are all girls’ schools. All four schools are racially mixed and economically diverse schools. All-in-all a range of differing school environments were chosen as can be gleaned from the institutional biographies in the next section.
Hence, although all four schools are located in urban areas I chose different types of schools.
This means that all four schools can be placed in different categories and cater for different social groupings. Atlantic Ocean High School falls within the boundaries of a very affluent society and caters for a very different kind of learner who pays a high rate of school fees.
Pacific Ocean College which is in some ways similar to Atlantic Ocean High has a lower rate of school fees and caters for a more diverse group of learners who come from the outlying townships (segregated suburban areas created under Apartheid for Africans) as well as areas surrounding the school. Arctic Ocean High School on the other hand is very centrally situated
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in an urban area and the rate of school fees is lower than the other two schools and has learners coming from very disadvantaged backgrounds. Indian Ocean Secondary School is one whose school fees are much lower than the other three. Hence, they cater for the very poor-socio- economic community. Many learners at this school come from the surrounding squatter camps or informal settlements which makes this school very different and complex in comparison to the first two schools and is in some ways similar to Arctic Ocean High School.
Glesne and Peshkin (1992) maintain that the researcher should select a site where he/she would be accepted and where he/she would feel comfortable working. Thus, I selected schools with which I am familiar and are within easy reach. Hence, communication with the participants involved in the research was not difficult. However, the principals of Atlantic Ocean High and Pacific Ocean College made it clear that the research project should not interfere with the teaching-learning activities. I had to adhere to this, and therefore all research at these schools was carried out after school hours. However, Arctic Ocean High and Indian Ocean Secondary were more flexible and allowed me to carry out my research during school hours. This was because of transport problems hence, learners could not stay after school hours. Although the schools were amongst other reasons chosen because of their proximity and accessibility, they can also be said to be similar to other schools in KwaZulu-Natal.
The next section deals with the institutional biographies of the four chosen schools under study.
These biographies are necessary as they can help to understand how learners view history as a school subject and why they view the subject the way they do. In other words, some of the characteristics of the schools may influence how learners view school history.
4.2.3.2 The four chosen schools
a) Institutional biography – Indian Ocean Secondary School
‘Indian Ocean Secondary School’ is situated in Hammarsdale in KwaZulu- Natal. This school falls into a ‘quintile 5’ category. As mentioned above ‘quintile 5’ is the least poor and are fee- paying schools. Ironically, Indian Ocean Secondary falls into ‘quintile 5’ even though they cater mainly for learners who come from poor socio-economic backgrounds. Many learners
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come from the disadvantaged communities surrounding the school and some even come from the so called ‘townships.’ Hence, even though they fall into a higher category because of their location and being a fee-paying school, they technically can be classified as a disadvantaged school.
The learner population is approximately 1200 and caters for grade 8 to grade 12 learners. The school which historically catered for Indian learners, now has the following learner population ratios: 80% Black learners, 5% Coloured learners and 10% Indian learners and 5% White learners (these categories were carried over from the apartheid era and are now used ostensibly for redress). It is a coeducational school and is an English medium school. Coeducational means that it has a mixture of boys and girls. The school is fairly large with a teacher population of about 45. The school buildings are not in very good condition and the school has an untidy appearance. Facilities at the school are very limited and not many resources are available at this school. In addition, class sizes are fairly large and educators find it difficult to cope under these conditions.
The school is not properly fenced but does have some security. Most of the learners attending this school also live in ‘squatter camps’ or informal settlements in the vicinity. However, 30%
of learners travel by taxi to get to school. The school does have a fully-fledged Governing Body in place as well as a Representative Council of Learners. Due to the fact that this school is situated in a poor socio-economic environment, it is described by staff as having poor discipline, little parent involvement and little collaborative management.
Interestingly, this school has a large number of history learners in grade 11. At the time of the study there was 40 learners studying history at this level. The matric (grade 12) pass rate at this school is fairly good and is approximately 82%. However, the quality of the passes is not great.
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b) Institutional biography – Arctic Ocean High School
‘Arctic Ocean High’ is a secondary school situated in Pinetown in KwaZulu-Natal. This school has recently been categorised as a disadvantaged school by a senior education official.
According to the district director - of the region - the school caters mainly for disadvantaged students from the surrounding townships which means that learners travel quite far by public transport to get to and from school. Interestingly, this school is situated near the Central Business District and hence, falls within the ‘quintile 5’ category of schools. In other words even though they fall within the higher category they technically should fall into a ‘quintile 1’
as they are very under-resourced and financially not strong and cater for learners from disadvantaged backgrounds. However, the school still has a culture of being referred to as an
‘ex-Model C’ (governing body-funded public) school as learners still pay fees, but the reality is that they are a disadvantaged school even though they are situated near the Central Business District.
This school is a fairly small school and has a learner population of 554 learners ranging from grade 8 to grade 12. Teaching staff at this school comprises of 16 members. The historically
‘white’ school has the following learner population ratios: 80% Black learners, 10% Coloured learners and 5% Indian learners and 5% White learners. It is a coeducational school and the medium of instruction is English. The learner population at this particular school has dropped tremendously recently due to its poor socio-economic status and the negative societal view of the school. Many learners dropped out of school for reasons amongst others such as poverty, lack of parental involvement and financial constraints. In fact, parents, according to the principal, are apathetic and do not attend meetings.
Also, this historically ‘White’ school was one of the first schools in the area to open its doors to Black learners, hence there was an influx of Black learners during this period. However, after a while it was observed that these learners left due to experiencing major problems with transport, traveling long distances, lack of finances and so on. Another contributory factor was that due to the high rate of delinquent behaviour at the school, the more disciplined learners moved into more disciplined schooling environments.
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Furthermore, the school is not in good condition, buildings are fairly old and dilapidated and the school has a very untidy appearance. The school has limited resources and facilities.
According to the principal, the school has no laboratories or library and was using buildings and former houses around the school as makeshift classrooms. One house was being used as a book room and not a class, as the building had deteriorated badly and was not safe for human occupation.
The class sizes are generally large and teachers are overburdened with heavy workloads. The school does have some proper management structures such as a School Governing Body and a Representative Council of Learners in place. However, these bodies are small and not fully functional at all levels of management. The grade 11 history class is a fairly small number of 25. The matric pass rate is approximately 72% but the quality of the passes is generally not good.
c) Institutional biography – Atlantic Ocean High School
Atlantic Ocean High School is an ‘ex-model C’ (governing body-funded public) school and is situated in the heart of an up-market suburban area, on the South Coast of KwaZulu-Natal. It also overlooks the Indian Ocean. It falls within the ‘quintile 5’ group which is an appropriate category as it is well resourced and financially strong. Also it is a ‘fee-paying’ school and the fees are much higher in comparison to other schools in the vicinity.
Atlantic Ocean High school is an all girls’ school with very traditional core values. The school is fairly large with a learner population of approximately 850 learners ranging from grade 8 to grade 12. The school has 60 educators on its staff. The historically ex-white only school currently has the following learner population ratios: 40% White learners, 40% Indian learners, 15% Black learners and 5% Coloured learners. The school has adapted successfully to the challenges of a changing society and continues to meet the needs of the growing Durban community.
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The school’s excellent facilities, well-established infrastructure and dedicated and caring staff combine to create an environment that enables leaners to achieve consistently in all areas. The buildings are well kept and the entire school is well cared for. The school has the most modern and up to date resources. Parents are actively involved in their children’s education and therefore the teaching and learning environment is very conducive for education to take place.
The School Governing Body and Representative Council of Learners are selected along very democratic lines. Moreover, these bodies are fully functional at all levels of management and play a major role in decision-making at the school. Learners are actively involved in the management of discipline at this school and have had a major influence in creating a disciplined learning environment at the school.
The school has a fairly small population of 28 girls studying history in grade 11. This school boasts an excellent academic record with an unbroken 100% matric pass rate since its creation.
d) Institutional biography – Pacific Ocean College
‘Pacific Ocean College, is an ‘ex-model C’ secondary school and is situated on the North Coast in KwaZulu-Natal. It is an all girls’ secondary school with learners coming from both advantaged and disadvantaged areas. Many learners come from the townships. This school also falls within the ‘quintile 5’ category. This category is befitting as the school is well resourced and is a fee-paying school as well as being centrally situated. The school has a wealth of experience and has achieved success over the years.
Pacific Ocean is a fairly large school with a learner population of approximately 1100 learners ranging from grade 8 to grade 12. The school has 60 educators on its staff. The historically ex- white only school currently has the following learner population ratios: 40% Black learners, 30% Indian learners, 20% Coloured learners and 10% White learners. The dynamics of the learner population has changed drastically over the past few years. Many White learners over the years have moved to a more disciplined schooling environment due to behavioural problems that were experienced by the school which impacted on its reputation.
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The school is in excellent condition. The buildings are well kept and the entire school is well cared for. The school has good facilities and modern and up to date resources. Some parents are actively involved in their children’s education while some show little interest. The school has a fully-fledged Governing body and Representative Council of learners. These bodies are functional at all levels of management and play a major role in decision-making at the school.
Learners are to a certain extent involved in the management of discipline at this school and have had a key influence in creating a disciplined learning environment at the school. However, the school still experiences some major discipline and management issues.
The school tries to adopt a holistic approach that involves the whole person – mentally, physically, emotionally, spiritually and socially. No matter what the standard of the learner on admission, with the correct motivation and quality teaching and learning, learners have excelled. Hence, the school boasts excellent matric pass rate which fluctuates between, 98% to 100%, over the past few years. At the time of this study there were a small number of 29 grade 11 learners studying the subject history in the secondary phase.
4.2.3.3 Choice of research participants
The participants of this study are learners at the four schools as described in the above section.
The learners are at secondary level of schooling and range from between 16 and 18 years of age. Learners at school level play a very significant role in the teaching and learning that happens at schools. Their roles as learners at school are to engage actively in the learning process. Learners at this stage of schooling are given the choice of the subjects they wish to select. However, their choices are sometimes stifled by the school system and external factors which were discussed in Chapter 2. For the purposes of this study I focused on learners who selected history as a subject at secondary level as this was deemed to be a niche in the literature as discussed in Chapter 2.
Nieuwenhuis (2007) states that purposive and convenience sampling is usually used in qualitative research since participants are selected because of some defining characteristics (history learners in grade 11 in this case) that make them suitable for the study. In fact, according to (Measor 1985) one of the most important tasks for a researcher is the selection of