Chapter 2: Literature Review and Conceptual Framework
2.3 Conceptual Framework
2.3.1 Rogers’ concept of motivation
Motivation is defined as “an internal state or condition that activates, guides, maintains or directs behaviour” (Kleinginna & Kleinginna, in Gall, 2013, p. 65). Motivation can either be intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic motivation refers to the inner drive that propels one to engage in an activity. Pintrich and Schunk (in Mellard et al., 2012, p. 517) further define
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intrinsic motivation as “an individual’s willingness and desire to engage in an activity because the activity is a means to an end”. Extrinsic motivation is driven by some external reward.
Rogers (2004) highlights four categories of motivation which drive people to attend adult education classes. These are attending for symbolic, instrumental, opportunity and for access reasons. From his interaction with people in adult education classes, Rogers (2004) points out that people participate in adult learning for different reasons. Some participate for symbolic reasons. They simply want to belong to the literate sector of society as a form of social status. They are aware that the world has two groups of people, those who have higher education and those who have basic or no education whatsoever. Therefore they want to migrate from the “illiterate” class which is regarded as “an inferior race, ignorant and powerless” and cannot engage in fruitful conversations, to the literate group which is regarded as clever and can dominate even in meetings (Rogers, 2004, p. 3). This group does not have proper goals that will make them focus, and does not usually do well in class. The main aim is just to belong.
This is strengthened by the self-determination theory as explained by Ryan and Deci, ten Cate et al., Kusurkar & ten Cate (in Taylor & Hamdy, 2013). This theory considers the importance of intrinsic motivation in adult learning that it brings about the feeling of belonging.
Learners who attend for instrumental reasons do this simply to perform certain tasks, like learning to read and write, read magazines, read the Bible, especially those who hold certain positions at church, write letters, fill in forms, sign bank cheques, getting a driver’s licence or obtaining specific skills to get a promotion at the workplace. They may want to learn practical skills (Rogers, 2004), and they feel happy and satisfied when they are able to perform these tasks. They may not feel the need to go as far as writing examinations or getting certificates, once they have acquired the skill or knowledge they wanted.
Some learners attend for opportunities the learning programme may provide, be it employment or promotion in the workplace or even to get a raise in their wages. They are aware that sharpening their skills or obtaining a certificate can put them in a better position to progress in life, such as applying for another job. They are extrinsically motivated and see the value of education because they want to benefit materially at the end (Rogers, 2004).
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Rogers’ last type is about access to further learning, either in a formal or non-formal education programme. Learners in this group are eager to learn. They love learning and enjoy the pursuit of knowledge. They are intrinsically motivated, and attend literacy classes and consider them as stepping stones to get through to formal education. To this group, enrolment is viewed as a key to further successful study. They are not motivated by material things, but, they want to satisfy their inner drive. Rogers (2004) argues that only people who are dedicated belong to this group. He further postulates that they are usually young adults who are between the ages of 16 and 20 and also that there are more young female learners than male learners. In South Africa, these learners may be those who have failed matric and could not be taken back by their schools, and so are to be found attending AET classes.
Concurring with Rogers (2004), a study on motivation and learning conducted in Papua, New Guinea, revealed that an array of reasons motivate adult learners to learn. These include inter alia, their desire to fit in social circles, improve their profession and intellectual stimulation. This then propels their behaviour to participate or not to participate in adult learning (Gom, 2009).
Another study conducted at a retirement village in the United States, focused on older educated adults. The purpose was to detect predictors of persistence in adult learning. The findings revealed that these adult learners stayed in adult classes for intellectual stimulation. They wanted to satisfy their intellectual curiosity and stay relevant in educational activities. Also, they wanted to stay away from boredom and loneliness.
Association and contact was ranked lower in this study and was only evident among the unmarried participants and new residents (Kim & Merriam, 2004).
While there are some men at Endleleni centre who participate for extrinsic reasons, such as studying further so as to lead better lives, others have an inward drive. This could be matched to their determination and perseverance in attending classes despite their age.
Thus far, I have considered different motivations of learners for participating in AET classes. Now, I will consider another aspect to participation, covering factors that prevent men in particular, from accessing adult education.
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