CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
2.14 ROLE OF THEORY IN RESEARCH
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costly if done by specialised consultants, as a result, local attorneys, retired radio / TV personalities play a vital in role in assisting and offering expert advice. At Radio Turf for instances, policy drafting could be accomplished easily if the university departments such the law, media and communication studies are consulted since the station is campus based.
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multidimensional and depending on different societies the inequality is either moderate or worse. There are varying degrees to which males and females are unequal in aspects such as status, power or influence, access to valued resource, eligibility for social positions and ability to make decisions about their own lives. All of these variations speak to gender stratification and most apply to media practice (Hogeland 2010) in areas such as management, news reading and reporting and decision making processes in the media. In a mass media perspective, the prevalence of stratification is firmly probed in most of the feminist literature (Hogeland, 2010). The feminist theory for instances, questions the unequal distribution of resources and compensation of same work done by both men and women.
The application and effects of stratification are visible in the media fraternity particularly in remuneration and equal pay practices. Over the years, females were paid less for the same work done by male counterparts in the workplace (Byerly and Ross, 2008). These assertions are further substantiated by the GMBS (2017) that women owned only 5% of the media houses in South Africa and constituted only 7 % of media managers. These figures present a worrying trend in terms of diversity especially because women dominate media and journalism schools (ASNE, 2016).
The higher number of female students at universities and colleges does not seem to match the number of practising female journalists across the world (Byerly, 2015).
At CR, the process of volunteering is open to all community members. Women, men, gays, lesbians, bisexual, transgender and intersex have equal chances of actively taking part in CR activities. Volunteers take part in activities such as producing and presenting programmes, providing information rich content, analysing and reviewing content as well as offering financial support to the stations (Frazer and Estrada, 2001). The reality according to research, is that men still outnumber women in occupying senior management positions (ASNE,2016; Gender Links, 2017) and in contributing in the programming as experts (GMPS, 2010;2017). While CR’s make use of volunteers for their daily business, it is important to note the possibilities of side-lining women based of cultural practices and stereotypes.
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There are two major theoretical perspectives on social stratification. In this section the researcher gives a summary of the two perspectives namely the Structural - Functional analysis and the Social - Conflict analysis.
Structural - Functional analysis
Influenced by the work of Talcott Parsons, gender plays a vital part in societal classifications of roles and responsibilities assigned to both males and females. Parsons (2000) identifies two distinctions in providing roles (instrumental and expressive roles) which are learned in the process of socialisation. In Parsons view, men exhibit instrumental roles such as being bread winners and hard workers whereas women exhibit expressive roles such as childrearing.
Although there are different critics to this view, the prevalence of this division of roles can be seen in the media. Generally women are given less demanding positions in the media while men are given management and decision making positions (Craft and Wanta, 2004).
Social – Conflict analysis
A major argument in this perspective as presented by scholar Friedrich Angels (2017), the division in labour and inequalities are as a result of wealth.
Capitalism as discussed, exaggerated male dominance. Technology on the other hand was seen as major player in reversing the status quo. In the CR sector women are supposed to be given equal preference as men. However most tend to take the back seat due stereotypical practices.
2.14.2 Social responsibility theory
The social responsibility theory according to Oosthuizen (1996) suggests that the media should reflect all social groups and be diverse by giving people access to a variety of viewpoints and the right to react to those viewpoints. Different genders, cultures and religions have equal rights to the media. It is a critical role for the same media to protect, educate and inform society on a variety of issues. This mass media theory is relevant in this study for it calls for equality in all genders and other aspects.
In this case, the programming at any CR station must be flexible and allow for community participation. Moreover gender issues should be discussed. Today’s
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communities are unfairly discriminating against certain sexual identities because of cultural or religious beliefs e.g. Gays and Lesbians, women and Children. The social responsibility theory is based on the following arguments raised by McQuail (1987:116-118)
The media should support democratic and political principles
Although this premise is broadly general about democratic and political principles, it is the researcher’s view that democratic principles include fairness in engaging society. Women, men, gays, lesbians and intersex people are part of society and their contributions to the media and society should be treated equally. The society should democratically take part in the media activities as it does in establishing such media houses.
According to GMBS (2010) men politicians are preferred by the media and often used in interviews than female politicians. This disparity suggests an oversight on issues of equally and somehow perpetuates media stereotypes on both men and women. As previously stated, it is the responsibility of media houses to equally engage both the male and female audience, promote diversity in sources and encourage the society to take active part in the media activities.
The media should create a platform for presentation of different viewpoints The CR sector remains a relevant platform in engaging ordinary citizens in political, social and other aspects of life. The nature of the operations in the sector permits for talent nurturing, social development and also creates opportunities for formal employment in the media and journalism industry.
CR sector normally invites local experts to speak on a variety of programmes, this ability allows for a two flow of ideas and provides entry points for mutual engagement between society and the media. By doing this, media and ordinary citizens are able to speak and debate issues that affect them directly rather through mainstream media.
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Media independence should be emphasized in relation to their responsibility towards the society
The South African media regulatory system is one the best in the world and most progressive on the African continent. The system is made out of three mechanisms that support and promote media independence namely, state independent regulatory body (ICASA), the self-regulatory mechanism (BCCSA) and the ombudsman.
The media should meet certain standards
In offering a solution to the problem of reconciling freedom with social responsibility, the theory offers the below two solutions:
The establishment of regulatory body’s independent from government
South Africa as stated above has this regulatory body called the Independent Communication Authority of South Africa (ICASA) which is responsible for broadcasting and telecommunications regulations; the press ombudsman for press and the Broadcasting Complains Commission of South Africa (BCCSA) responsible for electronic media. The community media sector forms part of the broadcasting category therefore issues of regulation are dealt with by ICASA. This however, does not suggest that all issues that may arise in terms of content, challenges faced by the listeners or any matter that is not consistent with the broadcasting legislature at CR can only be addressed by ICASA, issues could also be addressed with the BCCSA.
The BCCSA is a complaints authority that allows listeners and viewers to launch in complains and comments about the broadcast industry. This could be in terms of false advertising, sexually explicit content, sexist language, incitement of violence and many more issues. The BCCSA was formed by the National Association of Broadcasters and is recognized by ICASA as an independent disciplinary tribunal. The commission has the power to reprimand or fine broadcasters if found guilty of misconduct. Depending on the seriousness of the offense, the commission can also demand an apology from the broadcaster in the same platform and magnitude the misconduct occurred.
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The establishment of Professional bodies for self-regulation
The South African National Editors forum (SANEF) is one example of this solution. Another body could be the National Association of Broadcasters (NAB). These professional bodies play an important role of advancing and nurturing the presentation and delivery of balanced and impartial news (Fourie, 2000). Fourie (2000) asserts that these professional bodies are key in self-regulation. These bodies strive for high professionalism, ethical conduct and adherence to the rules and regulations set out by the regulatory bodies. Professional bodies are normally identified as the internal regulations since they are formed by the media and communication industry itself, for the media and communication industry or sector by the practitioners and managers in the sector (Fourie, Ibid).
In light of the above, the following basic principles of the theory take premise when dealing with CR.
a) CR should accept certain responsibilities towards society.
b) CR should fulfill their responsibilities mainly by subscribing professional standards with regard to the supply of information and the truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance of their reporting.
c) CR should self-regulate within the framework of the law and established institutions.
d) CR should avoid broadcasting information that can lead to crime, violence or social disruption, as well as information that can offend ethnic and religious minorities
e) Society is entitled to expect high professional standards and intervention is justifiable if the media fail to meet these standards.