2.10 Rural Development and Tourism
2.10.5 Rural Development and Ecotourism
Many rural communities view ecotourism as a major option for addressing rural economic decline (Okech, 2011), especially as many communities depend solely on a single natural resource extractive industry, namely, mining and forestry (Su, 2011). Such a view is based on the argument that tourism is widely perceived to have the potential to provide rural communities with local job opportunities, tax revenues and economic diversity (Wang and Pfister, 2008). In addition, tourism is viewed as a clean industry with limited serious environmental effects as compared to resources extractive activities that many rural communities have traditionally relied on for survival (Marchak, 2011). It is, therefore, not surprising that from an international point of view, the major focus is on forms of tourism that aim at balancing the needs of the local people with the need to protect the environment (Bennett et al., 2012). In a number of cases, this is the most suitable form of tourism in rural areas, which possess most tourist attractions (Rogerson, 2006). South Africa as a country possesses considerable potential for tourism. This can be attributed to South Africa's diverse heritage, a wide variety of cultures, wildlife, beautiful sceneries and coasts, as well as the novelty of her post-apartheid era. However, until recently tourism has been generally kept within former White South Africa and protected areas and it has been providing income mainly to the major hotel chains and transport companies (Richardson and Butler, 2014). Its contribution to local economies has been neglected as most of the generated incomes are utilised in cities. This is clearly reflected in the local peoples' attitude towards protected areas. In fact, the local people feel that they have limited reasons to protect wildlife or tourists (Rural Development Task Team (RDTT) and Land Reform Policy Branch: Department of Land Affairs, 1997).
Despite the negative attitudes and perceptions of the local people, Rowat and Engelhardt (2007) argue that of late the focus for economic development in KwaZulu-Natal has been placed on tourism development and community empowerment. This is believed to be a vehicle to generate tangible benefits to poor rural communities and at the same time a means of integrating conservation and development (Ballesteros et al., 2008). Viljoen and Tlabela (2007) also argue that nature conservation and associated tourism development is being considered as a means of contributing to the alleviation of rural poverty in KwaZulu-Natal.
However, tourists cannot be attracted into areas which are unsafe or insecure and without basic facilities. Ecotourism development, therefore, will depend upon both private and government investment and in order to make this viable benefits should be channelled to
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local people but through their constructive involvement and inclusive participation in sustainable environmental management and commerce (RDTT and Land Reform Policy Branch: Department of Land Affairs, 1997).
In recent years promising developments have been realised in various parts of South Africa where poor rural communities are being offered the opportunities to become partners in an economic venture within a protected area (Gardner et al., 2013). In fact, the issue is not just offering employment opportunities or meaningful participation but ownership with decision- making powers (Ndlovu, 2005). The Pilanesberg National Park in the Northwest Province has been noted as the first attempt in South Africa where protected area conservation has been integrated with community development (Naughton-Treves et al., 2005). The neighbouring communities are part of the decision-making process and this has been achieved through a joint liaison forum (Manavhela and Spencer, 2012). For example, the local communities were fully consulted prior to the introduction of lions in the Park. Furthermore, the communities decide on the allocation and distribution of money obtained from the Park. So far the money has been used to develop a community owned and managed game reserve, to improve water supplies and to build school classrooms (Saayman et al., 2012). In addition to participation in decision-making, local communities have the opportunity to share the benefits received as a result of the Park’s existence. For example, 10% of gate entry fees go to the local communities, the local people hold some of the senior Park positions, and small local firms receive contracts for road construction and maintenance (Carruthers, 2011). The Madikwe Game Reserve (Northwest Province) is also run in joint venture between the state, private sector and local communities and the impoverished communities in the sparsely populated Dwarsberg area are provided with jobs and other economic benefits (De Beer and De Beer, 2011).
The Richtersveld National Park in Northern Cape, which is based upon a contract between the local people and the National Parks Board, is yet another example. The local people are allowed to live inside the park and they co-manage the park with the National Parks Board (Naughton-Treves et al., 2005). Furthermore, the local communities lease out the land occupied by the Park to the South African National Parks at R900 000 per annum (Gumede, 2003). In addition, a local goods industry has been created on the boundaries of the Park, technical training programmes have been designed to increase the capacity of local residents as well as the expansion of environmental programmes and bursary schemes to enable the local people to participate in sustainable development schemes (Connolly, 2010).
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The Mpakheni tribe in Mpumalanga Province receives rent for the tribally owned land occupied by the Mthethomusha Game Reserve and participates in the management of the reserve along with the Mpumalanga Tourism and Parks Authority (MTPA) (De Koning, 2010). Other benefits include job opportunities, community development initiatives, and carefully supervised/managed natural resource harvesting as well as direct income from tourism revenues going into a community development trust fund (Naughton-Treves et al., 2005).
In KZN, the Somkhanda community in a remote rural area in northern KwaZulu-Natal has already found a measure of prosperity by eagerly accepting ecotourism (Hansen, 2013a).
According to (Rolfes, 2010), the average income per household had trebled from R450 a year to approximately R1 300 in 2010 as a result of ecotourism. This is a good example of how successful ecotourism can combine environmental conservation with the development of depressed rural economies. In Maputaland, the Rock Tail Bay and Ndumo Wilderness Camp are run in partnership between the state, the affected local communities, a private sector operator, Wilderness Safaris as well as the KwaZulu Finance and Investment Corporation who supplied the financial expertise, loan and equity finance (Ndlovu, 2005). Indeed, other communities are now approaching the Department of Economic Development and Tourism with a view of tourism development within the area (Hansen, 2014). Still in Maputaland, a group of rural residents from KwaDapha successfully resisted removal from the Kosi Bay Nature Reserve (Hansen, 2014). At the present moment, they run their own tourism operations on the publicly owned land after acquiring permission from EKZNW (Naughton- Treves et al., 2005).
EKZNW has also adopted a ‘Neighbour Relations Policy’ and set up a network of Neighbour Liaison Forums comprising of local community leaders and field staff in the province (Naughton-Treves et al., 2005). The field staff play a facilitation role in mobilising resources and expertise for community projects and in helping communities in problem solving (Ngubane and Brooks, 2013). For example, some of the local communities bordering the HiP have received skills to enable them to reap the benefits of economic opportunities that exist within their own environment (Brooks, 2005). The following are the three examples from this approach. Firstly, the Mchunu Bed and Breakfast, which is community based, was established near the iMfolozi section entrance. It is locally owned by one family and consists of traditional Zulu huts accommodating about thirty people. The guests have an opportunity of being served traditional Zulu food and entertained through Zulu songs and dances. Guests
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normally spend one or two nights and often combine it with a visit to the park. This facility is the major source of income for the family but there are some problems that hinder its successful operation. Examples of hindrances include communication barrier, poor accounting skills, marketing problems as well as jealousy from other community members (Nzama, 2010).
Secondly, a piece of land was put aside to establish a Community Conservation Reserve for conservation/ecotourism opportunities in one of the communities living adjacent to the western boundary of the Hluhluwe section. The community has recognised the potential for cultural tourism, which will involve Zulu dancing, and singing as well as visits to traditional healers and the tribal court. Another additional entrepreneurial activity would be the sale of handicrafts (Nzama, 2010). This is a well-developed community from an institutional point of view since associations like tourism development and Izinyanga (traditional healers) are already in place (Brooks, 2005). In addition, the community has developed a high level of trust with EKZNW and regards it as a reliable partner in community development and upliftment (Nzama, 2010).
Thirdly, craft outlets have also been established near Nyalazi and Memorial entrance gates.
The two curio shops are a source of income to those involved mainly women without any formal education as well as accessibility to formal employment. Though the business is not very promising, there is potential to increase the income of the local people. The local communities, however, have to bear in mind the problems brought about by tourism (Adeleke and Nzama, 2013). For example, there is a danger of tourists being seasonal, unreliable income as well as stress brought about in the process of tourism promotion especially if not well planned and properly understood (Nzama, 2010).