LITERATURE REVIEW
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN
3.8 SCENARIOS OF SCIENCE
limited since one cannot make inferences or predictions.Inthe second analysis the data was therefore subjected to inferential statistics (Hawkins et aI., 1992) so that the
researcher could probe the descriptive statistics further. This entailed the use oft-tests.
In regard to the use oft-tests, which assumes interval data, with ordinal Likert scale items, in a recent review of the literature on this topic, Jaccard and Wan, (1996) summarize, "for many statistical tests, rather severe departures (from intervalness) do not seem to affect Type I and Type 11 errors dramatically" (p. 4). Consequently I felt the use of parametric statistics on the seven-point scale as justified. The purpose of the t-tests was to investigate whether or not the conceptions of nature of science for males and females and for the two race groups differ.
There were spaces between questions where the learners were requested to write their responses, with the proviso that they could write on the back of the papers or on loose pages if the spaces provided were insufficient. The focus of these scenarios included the three strands of content (nature of scientific knowledge), process (nature of scientific inquiry) and social institution of science (the relationship between science and society). Scenarios two and four pertained to the nature of scientific knowledge, scenario five to nature of scientific inquiry and scenarios one, one point three and three pertained to the relationship between science and society. Although each scenario has been categorized as belonging to a strand it must be noted that each scenario is not mutually exclusive to a strand. Responses to these scenarios were expected to further provide richer and more useful data as to learners' conceptions on nature of science.
3.8.2 Piloting the scenarios
I elected to pilot the scenarios in my own school given that it would be easier to gain access to participants. The pilot was carried out during the period when learners were writing year-end examinations. To avoid a relatively small sample both grade 9 and grade 11 learners were approached to pilot the open-ended questions (scenarios). A grade lower than the target population viz. grade 9 and grade 11 learners of a lower ability level, were targeted since it was felt that if these learners could provide sufficiently valid answers then the scenarios would be suitable for Grade 10. The six scenarios were administered to nine learners from grade 9 and four learners from grade 11 who were who were prepared to attempt the scenarios in their study period during examinations. Since it was not possible to interview learners during the examination period I also chose to include a teacher in the pilot. A female science teacher chose to answer the scenarios when she was not involved in marking papers or invigilating. I
engaged in an informal discussion with the teacher after she had completed the open format questionnaire. She provided valuable input with respect to the scenarios used and the construction of the open-ended questions.
Analysis of the responses and feedback from the teacher indicated that some statements and questions were vague. The changes made were: question 1.2 was reworded so that learners could differentiate between the decision makers and
implementers of research; in question 1.3.1 the word "own" was included to emphasize that these were personal religious beliefs; in scenario two 'Brighter' is proven to make clothes cleaner was included; question 3.4 and 5.3 was made more explicit to elicit specific and not vague responses. Since it was not possible to do a second pilot the modified scenarios (Appendix B) were used to collect qualitative data.
3.8.3 Scenarios of science - response rate
I administered the open format questionnaire titled "Scenarios of Science"
(Appendix B) during five science lessons, when new work was being taught for the next year, following the period of final examinations. The purpose for using five lessons and not one lesson was to spread out the activities so that learners would not find answering them overwhelming. Furthermore I felt that they were more likely to provide detailed answers if this was done. Approximately 15 minutes was allocated in each lesson for learners to complete the open-ended questions relating to each scenario.
Although I indicated that they could use more time if needed, none of the learners required extra time. During the first lesson I explained the purpose of the study and informed them that their participation was voluntary and this would not affect their marks. I also thanked them for offering their time since other learners were at home during this period. During each lesson the instructions on the first sheet (Appendix B)
was re-read as a reminder in the event that they had forgotten them. I also indicated that the activities were not to be discussed with each other sinceIwas interested in their views. After completion of the open format questionnaire learners indicated that they had enjoyed the activities. They also commented that it inspired them to ask more probing questions about how science knowledge is acquired and applied. All learners (100%) 16 males and 8 females returned the open format questionnaire.
3.8.4 Scenarios of science - data used for analysis
The dataI used for analysis were the responses given to the semi-structured and open ended-questions relating to the scenarios of science. I found like Babbie (1990) that some respondents gave answers that were essentially irrelevant to my intent and without interviews it was not possible to probe these responses. As mentioned earlier reasons were given for not using interviews as a mode of data collection. Nevertheless, given that "open-ended questions catch the authenticity, richness, honesty, candour and depth of response" (Cohen et aI, 2000, p. 255). I found sufficient responses from the scenarios to provide reliable data. Furthermore, responses from the scenarios served as secondary data since the structured questionnaire "Views about Science" served as my primary data.
3.8.5 Scenarios of science - method of analysis
The data was typed into a word processor using Microsoft word and responses from all participants were rearranged per question. The data was read and reread in order for the researcher to form a clearer understanding of the information. The data was then coded using preset themes or categories on nature of science as described by the scientific community (Collins et aI., 2001). Content analysis was conducted by
looking for specific words within the text for which themes could be identified.
Niewenhuis (2007c) describes content analysis as a process oflooking at written data from different angles in order to identify keys in the text to help understand and interpret the data. He points out that although traditionally it refers to the analysis of written documents, books, brochures, etc. it can also be used to analyse qualitative responses to open-ended questions on surveys, interviews or focus groups. The themes will then be compared with that of the quantitative data in order to make inferences.