Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) conceived a model of ethical leadership based on four domains of ethics. They ground their model on four ethics which are: the ethic of justice, the ethic of critique, the ethic of care and the ethic of the profession. This model is discussed below.
3.2.1 The ethic of justice
Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) assert that ethic of justice is based on rights and laws. They further posit that educators and ethicists from this tradition have had a profound influence on approaches to education and educational leadership. Moreover, Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) state that the ethic of justice indicates that schools should teach principles, in particular those of justice, equity, and respect for liberty. Acar, Kaya, and Sahin (2012) maintain that, while ethical leaders may take success as their target, they also look for doing their work within the frame of justice, honesty and ethical standards. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) borrow from Sergiovanni (1992) in maintaining that there should be deep concern for the welfare of the school as a community by taking into account not only the students, teachers, and administrator, but families as well. Olivier (2012 opines that the demand for justice is the cornerstone for society and its’ leadership. In underscoring the significance of the model of justice, Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) posit that the ethic of justice may take into account a variety of issues which include, amongst many, equity versus equality; the fairness of rules, laws, and policies;
whether laws are absolute, and if exceptions are to be made, under what circumstances; and the rights of individuals versus the greater good of the community. Olivier (2011) corroborates Shapiro and Stefkovich as he argues that leadership stems from the desire of social justice, the fair management of the interests of all the members of the organisation. Moreover, Olivier (2012) maintains that, where justice needs to be guarded, guardians (leaders) are needed to represent and protect the common interest of followers. Acar, Kaya, and Sahin (2012) posit that
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when ethical leadership focuses on justice, the behaviours of the employees are positively affected from the situation. They further argue that the practice of organisational justice evokes trust in the leader by the followers.
The relevance of the ethic of justice to education becomes paramount when school principals make decisions relating to misconduct of the subordinates. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) state that the ethic of justice frequently serves as a foundation for legal principles and ideals. Hence Olivier (2011) opines that employees are not much interested in leadership but want justice.
The legality of actions of individuals is sometimes relative. In agreement with the latter view is the assertion that, what is legal in some places may be considered illegal in others. They pose an important question of what is to be done if the law is wrong. The solution to the latter is to consider ethics to make a fair and just decisions.
3.2.2 The ethic of critique
The ethic of critique has its roots in critical theory (Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2005) and emphasises that schools produce inequities similar to those in societies. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) posit that educators need to comprehend that their classrooms are political as well as educational locations. Hence, ethics is not a matter of individual choice or relativism, but a social discourse grounded in struggles that refuse to accept needless human suffering and exploitation. Mncube (2012) avers that any form of shutting up the voices of learners undermines their constitutional right to democracy and justice as they have a right to be listened to. Smit, Cronje, Brevis and Vrba (2007) assert that employers should be interested in the behaviour of employees because the attitudes give warning of the potential problems. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) assert that the ethic of critique serves as a vehicle in the struggle against inequalities. Smit, Cronje, Brevis and Vrba (2007) argue that ethical decisions need to involve the equitable, fair and impartial distribution of benefits and costs amongst the individuals and groups. In this study, this latter notion is most appropriate in that school principals need to create space for the voices of the followers and as such treat them fairly and justly in the workplace. Moreover, learners’ interests need to be prioritised. In secondary schools in South Africa, there is a Representative Council for Learners (RCLs), which is the voice of learners in the education system. These structures in some township secondary schools do exist, but these structures are not empowered to carry out their mandates. Therefore, the ethic of critique remains much relevant and necessary, since the voices of learners need to be heard in schools. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) assert that through the critical analysis of social class and the distribution of resources, having taken into
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account divisions of wealth and power, there is the possibility that more knowledgeable, moral and sensitive school principals may be prepared. Kalshoven and Hartog (2009) opine that ethical leaders provide followers with voice, listen to their inputs and allow them to share in decision making that concerns their tasks. This can, in turn, assist in rectifying the wrongs in schools. Mncube (2012) argues that organisational decision- making processes need to be inclusive for everyone to own decisions taken within the organisation.
3.2.3 The ethic of care
Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) argue that the ethic of care is significant, not solely to scholars, but to educational leaders who are often asked to make moral decisions. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) assert that the primary responsibility of the school is to care for children (learners).
Owens and Ennis (2005) argue, in the same line, that teachers’ ethic of care requires the teacher to be responsive to the learners’ interests and should make manifest teachers’ desire for relationship and connectedness to learners. Further, Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) posit that an ethic of care offers another perspective and way to respond to complex moral challenges facing educational leaders in their daily work. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) state that school principals need to be both outstanding leaders and learners who are willing to listen to others when encountering the need to make vital moral decision. The ethic of care asks that individuals consider the consequences of their decisions and actions. Engelbrecht et al. (2014) assert that a leader who embraces ethics in his/her practices is likely to demonstrate honesty, fairness and care towards others and should be seen to be dedicated to open communication and to involving others in decision–making processes. Ethical principals need to put the interests of their learners first. Owens and Ennis (2005) state that human caring and the memory of caring and being cared for underpin the bases of the ethic of care.
Additionally, the caring teacher is sensitive to the needs of the learners and acts in the interest of the learners and shows a caring attitude and feelings toward the learners. Kimber and Campbell (2015) assert that principals must resolve tensions that emerge from situations in which professional ethics might conflict with their duties as a public sector employee, such as caring for the student who is participating in an illegal activity. Furthermore, Kimber and Campbell (2015) posit that most dilemmas school principals encounter relate to students or staff. School principals need to put the interest of learners first, by at all times striving to assist learners to achieve high academic scores and good behaviour, as well as assisting learners in
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achieving their needs and goals. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) assert that leaders need to reflect solutions that show concerns for others as part of their decision-making. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) maintain that a caring teacher does not tell learners to care but rather shows them how to care by creating caring relationships amongst them. Through shared moral values and honesty and caring, fairness and modelling ethical leadership, leaders can foster employees’ work engagement (Engelbrecht et al., 2014). Moreover, Engelbrecht et al. (2014) contend that ethical leaders care about their followers and engage in frequent ethical discourse with them. Meanwhile, Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) posit that caring teachers devote their serious attention into thinking about negotiating and carrying out actions in the best interest of their learners.
Further, those teachers establish a passionate belief in themselves and their learners as creators and evaluators of knowledge, exhibit the willingness to respect and honour the diverse nature of learners, varied skills and styles. Schools are institutions established to promote social change and establish social norms. These institutions are dedicated to the well-being of children, but students generally are not in control of what is occurring in these institutions (Katranci, Sungu, and Saglam, 2015). Yates (2014) argues that ethical leaders are concerned for others. Moreover, ethical leaders are those that promote collegiality and participative decision-making, treat their followers with consideration, and are fair to and care for others.
3.2.4 The ethic of profession
Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) assert that the amalgamation of the ethics of justice, care, critique and of the profession closes any ethical gaps that leaders of institutions may encounter.
Therefore, school principals need to have ethics as their guiding compass in their practices.
Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) assert that professional ethics calls for a dynamic process that requires school principals to develop their own personal and professional codes that have to be inclusive of the ethic of justice. Therefore, school principals need to consider the professional codes of ethics established by professional associations such as South African Council of Educators (SACE), and both the professional community and community standards in which the leader works are significant for the leader in crafting his/her professional codes of ethics.
In a nutshell, the leader has to understand the community he/she works for and accommodate their ethics. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) posit that the process of formulating a code of ethics involves an understanding of oneself as well as others. Mncube (2012) avers that learners’ role
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in an SGB needs to be legitimised by the adults in the SGB, and it should be respected so that they can meaningfully participate in crucial decision-making processes. In addition, Mncube (2012) maintains that the SGB ought to be elevating learner leaders in the SGB to become exemplars of discipline, respect, morality, and the promotion of positive relationships amongst learners themselves and between learners and staff, and community and parents.
Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) contend that there are possible clashes in the codes of ethics.
Those clashes are when an individual’s personal ethical code conflicts with professional code of ethics; when personal and professional code of ethics conflict with community practices and customs; and clashes between the personal codes among members of School Management Teams (SMTs) to mention a few. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) attest that ethical codes set by the state and professional associations tend to be deficient in their responsiveness, in that they are somewhat detached from the day-to-day personal and professional dilemmas school principals encounter. In accentuating their argument, Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) draw from Lebacqz (1985) and Nash (1996) respectively, that professional codes of ethics serve as guideposts for the profession, and they display the highest moral ideals of the profession, thus presenting an ideal image of the moral character of both the profession and of being professional. Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) further posit that due to dissonance or disagreement between what is set for school principals and what is happening in school, there is a great need for principals to develop their own personal and professional codes. In addition, Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) assert that leaders need to be take cognisance of community standards in their decision-making process.
Notably, Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) contend that for school principals to develop their own personal and professional codes they need to understand themselves as well as others.
Moreover, school principals need to recognise that the preparation of students to live and work in the 21st century needs very special principals who have grappled with their own personal and professional codes and have taken time to reflect on the different forms of ethics, having in mind the diverse backgrounds of the students enrolled in the schools they are heading. In addition, Shapiro and Stefkovich (2005) assert that for school principals, coming to grips with clashes that may emerge among ethical codes and making ethical decisions in the light of their best professional judgment means a judgment that considers the interest of the students as of paramount importance in all ethical decision making. All educators are expected to work under a code of ethics that is intended to guide their professional conduct in the field (Brown,
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Bessestte, & Chan, 2006). With the above said, Shapiro and Stefkovich’s (2005) ethical leadership model is most relevant for this study, as it provides guidelines for what constitutes good ethical leadership. I believe, through this multiple paradigm approach, that school principals’ ethical leadership practices in multiple challenging contexts can be enhanced.