Glossary
Chapter 3 Theorising and Framing the Study within the Context of Teacher Learning
3.8 Theories Within Which Teacher Learning can be Located
3.8.1 Situated Learning: A special consideration of contextual issues in teacher learning Within situated learning theories the emphasis is on learning that takes place within a
particular social environment. The important consideration of the context in which learning occurs is emphasised by Guskey (1995), who asserts that the appropriate selection and planning of professional development processes can be made possible through paying attention to the context of learning. In addition, the experiences that occur in the natural course of events, as teachers gain experience, are critical in influencing the course and nature of learning, among teachers (Ball & Cohen, 1999).Within situated conceptions of learning, group discussion, shared understanding and input as well as practical activities to work with new ideas, are highly valued (Billet, 2001). In this way learning is reinforced when others on-site share and develop ideas together, as happens in the broader social context of communities of practice (Borko, 2004). However, the ongoing debate between on-site and off-site learning is far from being resolved, as the ensuing discussion will indicate.
3.8.1.1 On-site learning versus off-site-learning: Far from a simple matter of choice Traditional notions of professional development typically entail off-site learning that takes place away from the site of work or school situation and more specifically away from the context of the classroom (Bell & Gilbert 1996; Hill, Petit & Dawson, 1995; Retallick, 1997;
Cuttance, 2001). Off-site learning includes workshops, conference sessions, seminars, lectures, and other short-term external training programmes and events on subject matter issues and topics such as cooperative learning and classroom management (Van Veen et al., 2009). In recent years an increasing amount of attention has been directed towards teacher learning and teacher professional development programmes situated in the workplace, as opposed to off-site programmes (Van Veen et al., 2009). This has marked the emergence of situated learning, where learning involves “changing the culture of schools so that teaching is a more public practice open to regular discussion among peers” (Lohman & Woof, 2001).
Stemming from the fact that there is currently a gap present between theory and practice in teacher professional development, as has already been presented (section 3.4.3), workplace learning is directed towards bridging this gap (Van Veen et al., 2009).
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On-site or workplace learning, as it is popularly known, tends to be of a longer duration, and the learning that transpires within this forum bears a striking connection with the work context of teachers (Smith & Gillespie, 2007). Moreover, workplace learning relates to changes in teaching practices in classrooms and schools that are achieved through individual teacher learning and problem-solving processes in the school (Ellström, 2001). In addition, there is a strong focus on subject matter and a preoccupation with encouraging analysis and reflection of learning activities (Ellström, 2001). Methods employed within the realm of on- site learning include training within the school or local context, and the formation of ongoing professional communities such as study circles and inquiry groups (Smith & Gillespie, 2007).
Coupled with the tendency to promote on-site learning is a shift in thinking with regard to the focus and nature of such learning. Van Veen et al.(2009) highlight these significant shifts as follows:
from a focus on individual teacher knowledge, skills and teaching competencies, including new instructional methods, to a focus on student learning and specific teacher problems;
from single sessions or a short series to long-term and ongoing; and
from a focus on change as something that is done to teachers and programmes which change teachers as passive participants, to change as a complex process that involves learning and teachers as active learners.
While the above discussion may have alluded to the possible benefits of workplace learning, Bredeson (2003) argues that not all on-site learning is good either, as research points to instances where existing biases were reinforced and where poor practices consequently continued to exist. Hence, the possibility of redirecting all learning to the workplace needs to be considered with caution. Instead, Van Veen et al. (2009) suggest adopting a healthy balance between flexible and creative varieties of individual and collective learning and between on-site and off-site learning. These sentiments are echoed by others (Little, 2006;
Smith & Gillespie, 2007), who assert that combining features of off-site and on-site activities in professional development programmes appear to be highly effective.
Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) concur with the sentiments of Little (2006) and Smith and Gillepsie (2007) that effective teacher learning should encompass elements of both on-site
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learning and off-site learning. They (Wenzlaff and Wieseman, 2004) conducted a study to examine the nature of teacher learning in a cohort-based master‟s degree programme in curriculum and pedagogy that was purposefully designed to be responsive to teachers‟ personal needs and preferences. The study employed qualitative and quantitative means of collecting data, through the use of document analysis, participant observation and surveys.
Teacher needs and preferences were identified through an initial survey that was carried out and included a preference for being afforded opportunities that promote learning in a socially mediated context, where teachers themselves decide what and how to learn; and relate what was learned to their respective classrooms through a reflective teaching orientation. It was found that teachers recognised that the cohort model helped to create a community of learners and in this way created a collaborative culture. Such an opportunity allowed teachers to increase their awareness and appreciation of listening to and seeing perspectives other than their own.
Furthermore, the study revealed that teachers preferred to learn by doing through trial and error methods, and in this way connect theory to practice. In addition, teachers wished to have input in their learning activities, which they believed should be authentic and connected to their classroom practices. Teachers viewed themselves as being self-directed, preferring to decide what and how to learn and in this way being active and involved. The study
highlighted learning as socially mediated. Furthermore, the study suggested that learning cannot be done to teachers or for teachers.
Following on from these findings, Wenzlaff and Wieseman (2004) assert that teacher learning need not be restrictive as teachers can learn in a variety of different contexts and situations, including learning reflectively while teaching and from students while learning. In addition, opportunities for learning may also present themselves in the form of workshops, structured courses, faculty and district meetings and school-based professional conversations (Wenzlaff and Wieseman, 2004). The changes in teaching practices requires convincing teachers of the merits of the new approach, providing opportunities for learning by experience and the incorporation of journeys that are highly personalised for individual teachers in teacher development programmes (McKenzie, 2001; Wenzlaff and Wieseman, 2004).
An acknowledgement of the above sentiments would imply that the scope for teacher learning is expansive, and consequently necessitates a multi-modal or multi-channel
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approach. The discussion above highlights the prominent role that the context of learning plays in influencing the nature of the learning that one engages in. To this end, the potential for exploring on-site learning as a form of situated learning was highlighted. However, the belief that on-site learning should replace off-site learning altogether is flawed in that solely employing on-site learning runs the risk of perpetuating bias and poor practice (Bredeson, 2003). Such flawed beliefs create a sense that mere dispensing with off-site initiatives altogether could be problematic (Wenzlaff and Wieseman, 2004). Yet despite criticisms levelled against traditional off-site learning initiatives, one gains a sense that there could be a place for such learning forms in teacher learning. The challenge then becomes to skilfully include off-site learning initiatives in a manner that compliments on-site learning, which suggests that exploring the way in which both forms of learning can be included requires further engagement (Wenzlaff and Wieseman, 2004). Nevertheless, the literature reviewed suggests that situated learning provides a meaningful avenue for teacher learning to be enhanced. It is within this context of situated learning that emergence of learning
communities becomes possible; as Kynashlathi et al. (2006) assert, sharing knowledge with the school community and colleagues is invaluable in promoting learning.
The increasing notion that learning is intertwined with the human need to feel a sense of belonging and making a contribution to a community, where experience and knowledge function as part of community property, is central to teacher learning (Lieberman & Mace, 2008). This has sparked the rise of the notion of learning communities. The potential for learning communities to enhance learning among teacher professionals is explored in the ensuing discussion.
3.8.2 Interactive Professionalism: Potential for learning communities to enhance