EXPLORING THE TERRAIN: SCHOOL LANGUAGE CHANGE, CHANGE AGENTRY AND SUSTAINING CHANGE
2.2 Part A: Literature Review
2.2.3 Change agentry and Sustainability of change
2.2.3.1 Social Psychological Perspective on Change
This perspective on change considers behavioural change as conceptualised in the fields of psychotherapy and social work. This selective review focuses on the work of Tom Douglas4 who explores the process of intended change in individuals and groups. Change
4 Tom Douglas is one of the world's leading writers on groupwork and processes and has written and taught extensively on changing human behaviour (Douglas 2000; 1997; 1986; 1983). He examines what intentional change processes essentially are and places them in relation to the natural development of human change and to the question of
is conceptualised as an intentional activity directed at altering behaviour in a quest to make it socially acceptable. Change agents are conceptualised as either trained professionals (psychiatrists, psychologists and social workers) or friendly helpers (religious teachers, parents or friends).
In exploring change, intervention and consequence, Douglas (1997) examines three distinct parts of the process of intended change:
Recognition that change is either desirable or necessary;
A form of intervention/s in the current behaviour of the individual or individuals to secure that change;
Intended and unintended consequences arising from any or all interventions.
(Douglas 1997:25) In considering change in individuals Douglas (1997) explores the reasons for change and concludes that there are essentially two reasons; one is that the individual may be dissatisfied with him or herself in some aspect of his or her life and decides that alterations would be beneficial, either self-performed or with the help of others. The other reason is that some individuals are tasked with the mission to change others to maintain social stability - in this case change may be ordered. Linked to the reasons for change are the two types of change that Douglas (1997) identifies, viz. internally directed and externally direct change. According to Douglas (1997), internally directed change is effected by the target making a decision about itself that change is necessary and externally directed change is initiated when a person or agency different from the target suggests or orders that change is needed.
consequences. His principle theme concerns the ignored peripheral and major consequences of intervention in the lives of people, as individuals or as members of groups or organizations (Douglas 1997). In contemplating the group as a medium of change, Douglas (1986) claims that the “changers” and those to be changed need to have a strong sense of belonging to the same group and the attraction of the group must be rooted in the relevance of attitudes, values and behaviour. In addition, strong influence for change can be brought about if the group creates a shared perception of the need for change supported by information relating to the need for, plans for, and consequences of change, which must be shared by all (Douglas 1986).
In addition to exploring change in individuals, organisational change is also examined.
Here Douglas (1997) distinguishes between the role of consultants in effecting organisational change and such changes as are made managerially, and between the two approaches to intervention in organisations. One approach is termed the structural logical approach which involves rational planning of organisational change based upon the function of the organisation and usually entails imposed change. The other is termed the interrelational approach which considers the needs of the human elements in the organisational structure as being fundamental to the successful performance of the organisation.
In exploring intended change in individuals and groups Douglas (1997) examines resistance to change. In this respect he explores threat and fear of proposed change, which may cause reluctance to change. In addition, the scope for change in individuals and groups and their ability to use it and the assumed costs and rewards of changing, which change agents need to be cognisant of, are also explored as critical to acceptance of or resistance to change. Another critical factor in intended change is context. Douglas (1997) argues that intended change, directed or worked at with an individual or group, has much of the quality of working blindly unless more can be known about the context in which the individual or group resides.
Some of the critical change issues that Douglas (1997) foregrounds are: the need for pressure (coercive and persuasive) to effect change, acceptance and integration of change to sustain change, support for change to be durable and establishing the potential for change of targets before initiating change.
The implications of the social psychological perspective on change for this study are to be found in the preoccupation with the human element whether the intervention is directed at changing individuals or organisations, in the relationship between context and change and in the critical change issues, which underpin change of any kind and emphasise the universal nature of change. The change focus of the social psychological perspective resonates with change in the school context. In both contexts there is a
similar preoccupation with shifting attitudes and creating a positive disposition towards school language change in individual stakeholders leading ultimately to institutional language change. Furthermore, school language change also depends heavily on creating the right context for change and is equally affected by the same critical change issues, particularly ways of sustaining school language change and support for this process.
Change issues within the school context are explored more directly in the next sub- section that focuses on educational change.