3.6 Digital Archives Identification and Administration
3.6.1 Digital archiving practices
3.6.1.5 Storage and preservation of digital archives
“Nothing has been preserved, there are only things being preserved […] The work is never finished” (Owens 2017:7).
Digital preservation refers to the overall continuous activities focused upon maintaining the semantic meaning of materials that are digitally born and documents created using recording and imaging technologies, and ensuring their long-term storage, access and use by future generations (Adu and Ngulube 2016:749; Decman and Vintar 2013:408; Ross 2012:45; Groenewald and Breytenbach 2011:242). The summarized definition from literature is a confirmation that preservation of information materials in all formats is not a singular event but an ongoing process throughout the lifespan of the materials (Lischer-Katz 2020:254). In the same vein,
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Owens (2017:7) emphasized that the work (of preservation) is never finished; hence reference can only be made to what we are preserving, not what has been preserved.
Consequently, the concept of digital preservation continues to generate a lot of interest in public sector organisations, in Africa and around the globe (Adu and Ngulube 2016:748).
In practice, the storage function in archival repositories precedes preservation but the latter determines the continued accessibility of the stored data. According to Phiri (2016:83), digital records can be stored in a number of ways which include the following:
i. Online storage on an agency’s server, on hosted storage such as the cloud;
ii. Offline enabling quick retrieval via a near-line storage system, then accessed online;
iii. Removable media for example, CDs, magnetic tapes, DVDs, USB sticks and memory cards. However, these devises have a limited lifespan and are usually not accessible directly.
iv. Outsourced storage where an organization’s financial capability, storage capacity and ICT resources are limited.
Universities should preserve archival materials to ensure they meet legal compliance requirements and remain accountable to their stakeholders (Calhoun 2014:78). This boils down to safeguarding records in all formats against agents of deterioration and threats to information. Deterioration refers to changes that take place in the state of an object or material, causing a deviation from its original form as a result of the effect of agents of destruction (Bankole 2010:415). In essence therefore, all materials including cultural and heritage resources are prone to deterioration, prompting the need for digital preservation. For many decades, information and recordkeeping professionals have been concerned with paper degradation and deterioration because this has been the primary recording medium for mankind over a long period of time.
According to Bankole (2010), paper mainly comprises of cellulose and other constituents like hemicellulose, pectins, proteins, lignin, tannins, waxes, among others, which give it a high tendency for biodegradation. Thus, preservation of paper records remains a key concern in archival sciences since most of the past records are
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on paper (Bankole 2010:415), forcing archivists to operate in hybrid environments, especially in developing countries.
Rapid technological developments experienced in recent years have transformed the field of archival science (Adu 2018:650), corroborating the sentiment of Tripathi (2018:8) that the task of information preservation has increased in complexity in the present era of technology. Consequently, recordkeeping professionals must be well prepared and equipped to preserve and provide access to digital records (International Council on Archives 2016). Adu (2018:650-651) reiterates that twenty first century archivists must keep pace with the constantly changing technologies and adopt strategies that will enable optimal management of memory resources for the benefit of generations to come. The propensity to destroy digital records is quite high, with some social media records being destroyed immediately after being accessed by the public (Council of Canadian Academies 2015). Messaging applications such as Hash, Snapchat, Wickr and Confide allow images and messages on devices to self-destruct after they have been accessed (Crook 2013 in Adu 2015:228). Unlike the analogue records such as paper, sculptures and photographs which have lengthy life spans going beyond decades and even centuries, digital records must be carefully preserved for them to weather through the technological terrain and remain accessible long into the future (Bhat 2018 in Adjei, Mensah and Amoaful 2019:82). Adu (2015:70-9) and Li and Banach (2011:1) highlight some of the problems that necessitate digital records preservation including the large volume of data, the hardware and software obsolescence, deterioration of storage media, technological obsolescence, lack of awareness, security and privacy issues, copyright issues and legal deposits, lack of effective policies, amongst others. Other factors include e-governance, legislative compliance and open government data requirements as additional contributory factors for digital preservation (Adu 2015:61-7). These issues and occurrences in the digital world impose upon organizations the need to adopt digital preservation strategies to preserve and secure archival resources long into the future.
Digital records must be rendered before they can be viewed by the human eye.
However, software and hardware obsolescence threaten renderability of digital records and require interventions such as refreshing, emulation and migration (Adam 2010:597). Asogwa (2012:206) observed that in Africa, digital media deterioration
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has been identified as the major cause for the inaccessibility and loss of digital records. This is attributed to media decay which occurs within five years after digital records creation or capture, owing to harsh environmental conditions in Sub-Saharan Africa which hasten digital equipment degradation. Other factors include loss of digital media during virus attacks or lack of or inadequate programmes and plans for digital records management (Asogwa 2012:206). Consequently, storage and preservation of digital records and archives must be followed up with enforcement of security measures to safeguard records authenticity, integrity and reliability because digital records can quite easily and quickly be changed, deleted, updated, copied and moved (National Archives of Australia 2015). The motivation for digital preservation therefore stems from the importance of maintaining the ability to retrieve, display and use d-records in the face of disruptive technologies and institutional infrastructures (Kalusopa 2018:168).
Groenewald and Breytenbach (2011:237) posit that digital archives should be preserved in their formats of creation without adding any restrictions to their access or other conditions whatsoever. However, scholarship notes that archival institutions in developing countries continue to face challenges in storing and preserving the content in their collections for provision of long-term access to users (Adjei, Mensah and Amoaful 2019; Adu 2015; Adu and Ngulube 2016). The IRMT carried out a study in five countries in East Africa (Kenya, Burundi Tanzania, Rwanda and Uganda) and established that recordkeeping issues in the government sector were not sufficiently addressed, resulting in poorly organized records (International Records Management Trust 2011). The recommendation of the study was that governments and organizations should adopt digital preservation programmes, considering the rapidly changing technological landscape which accelerates deterioration of digital records.
The International Records Management Trust and the International Council on Archives have stressed the necessity for recordkeeping professionals in the African region to be provided with the required support to deal with digital preservation challenges (International Council on Archives 2016). Nevertheless, archivists should shift away from reactive approaches where swift action is taken to save damaged and threatened materials, and instead embrace a proactive approach of preserving digital records (Li and Banach 2011:1) by instigating digital asset management practices throughout the lifecycle of digital records. In this regard, global digital preservation
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efforts embraced by archivists in organizations today have encompassed best practices, advocacy, collaborations and training of staff (Adu 2018:661). The OAIS Reference model is one of such initiative geared towards providing guidance for digital archives preservation. Recordkeeping professionals in Africa should similarly embrace best practice in digital preservation and archiving. da Silva and Borges (2017:318) advise that information repositories including archives should develop preservation programmes and policies to provide the formal mandate for all functions relating to digital preservation. For example, in USA the Library of Congress was granted the mandate to lead a nationwide campaign for the long-term preservation of digital content, following the enactment of the National Digital Information Infrastructure and Preservation Program legislation by Congress in December 2000 (Adu and Ngulube 2016:749). In 2002, similar efforts were made on the African continent when 40 representatives from 25 countries converged in Addis Ababa to discuss the prevailing dangers for digital records which included technological obsolescence, insufficient funding, lack of top management support and skills gap, among others. Practical proposals were put forth regarding the development of policies, standards and techniques for digital preservation, though these have never been implemented satisfactorily (Adu and Ngulube 2016:749).
Despite ongoing global and regional initiatives in preservation, studies undertaken in Africa have highlighted challenges that organizations in Africa continue to face when it comes to preserving digital records and archives, which include:
i. Poor technological infrastructure and inadequate resources to enable preservation practices;
ii. Lack of policies, standards and procedures to regulate the creation, storage, retrieval and preservation of digital information resources;
iii. Inadequate metadata;
iv. Poor collaboration efforts and partnerships;
v. Lack of trained staff or experienced professionals in the management and preservation of digital resources; and
vi. Insufficient funding and lack of support from the management (Masenya and Ngulube 2019:2; Ngulube 2012:131-2).
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The problems identified above are similarly faced by archival repositories in public sector organizations and universities while managing digital archival materials.
Findings of the study by Kamatula and Kemoni (2018:81) indicated that government offices lacked long-term preservation strategies for digital records and archives.
Similarly, Wamukoya and Lowry (2013:154) reported archival repositories in the East Africa region lacked formal digital archival management and preservation strategies.
Today, many African countries are still struggling with the same problems arising from the integration of digital technologies in records and archives management, confirming the view that most of those recommendations are yet to be implemented.
In South Africa for example, Katuu (2018:38) notes that digital preservation of records has not been a priority topic for professional discussion in the country, thereby contributing to the challenges faced in the long-term preservation of digital records. In Kenya, Ambira, Kemoni and Ngulube (2019:306) identified the inept management of digital records as a gap that should be addressed in all public ministries and organizations. Therefore, the present study zeroed in on the preservation challenges enshrouding digital archives in public universities in Kenya and presented best practice strategies to enhance their management. Some preservation strategies for digital archives identified in the literature include technology preservation, backup strategy, migration, refreshing, emulation, encapsulation, cloud computing and Linked Open Data (LOD) (Anyaoku, Echedom and Baro 2019:44-5; Adu and Ngulube 2016:752-4).