3. Introduction
3.3 The Structuration Theory
3.3.1 Structure
As a set of rules and resources organized as properties of social systems (Giddens, 1989;
Rose & Hackney, 2003), structure is an outcome of an action or an object which can be observed in that it enables human actions (Orlikowski, 1991). Representing the application of rules and resources, structure exists only as memory traces, serving as the organic basis of human knowledgeability that is instantiated in action (Rose & Hackney, 2003). In other words, it does not have physical existence, but a product of human action that is manifested through (and is dependent on) the activities of the human agent (Ma, 2010). In this instance rules refer to routines followed by organizations, individual or teams to accomplish goals.
Resources on the other hand, relate to interactions, attributes or materials that can be used to control and influence members. They are structured properties of social systems, drawn on and reproduced by knowledgeable agents through interaction (Rose & Hackney, 2003).
Structure is regarded as a set of procedures, tasks, hierarchical relations, regularities and processes of interaction that are embedded in human action.
Whilst rules relate to the guiding and limiting properties such as policies, standards and best practices created by and guiding human actions, resources may appear in both authoritative and allocative forms (Stillman & Stoecker, 2005). Authoritative refers to the co-ordination of activities of human agents. Allocative on the other hand refers to the control of material products - tools (ibid). Rules and resources are utilized by agents when they are interacting with each other, technology or users interacting with technology when using it. Resources are hardware (PCs, monitors, servers), and an example of rules is an access control policy.
Access control policy is where it is required that a user’s access be removed when the user leaves an organization. In this instance a policy (rules) is created and utilized by agents.
35 In the software development environment, structure is represented by organizational knowledge, policies and standards, and the application of these to the programming and quality control activities. These structural properties are incorporated by agents during and after the technology development. For example, in an IT environment human agents apply rules (through their knowledge) using resources (hardware, software) to accomplish tasks (Orlikowski, 2000).
3.3.1.1 Rules & Resources as Properties of a Socio-Technical System
In the structuration theory (ST) context, rules and resources have a mutual relationship (Jones & Karsten, 2003), in that they exist in the practice, meaning that rules in a socio- technical environment are embedded in, and are a product of human action (ibid). Human action implies that technology is a social construct, and its evolving development is largely dependent on activity rules such as procedures and standards that guide human action. In this context, human (agent) action represents agency, meaning that structure and agency are inter-connected entities that are related and mutually interdependent (Giddens, 1984).Agency refers to the capacity of human actors (agents) to make decisions and to be able to work independently (Rose & Scheepers, 2001, Rose & Hackney, 2003). Human agency relates to a human’s capability to make decisions or a choice, to be able to work independently and the “capacity to make a difference” (Rose, 1998). Giddens refer to the agent as a reason behind what is being done (Naidoo, 2009). Agents produce, reproduce and develop social structures which enable them in their actions. Social activities are recreated by actors as they reproduce conditions that make human actions possible.
Structuration theory claims that structure and agency have a recursive mutual interdependence (Rose & Scheepers, 2001). Referred to as the duality of structure, it is where agency and structure (Rose & Hackney, 2002) interact together to reproduce practices or to “influence change in society” (Wolfel, 2005). For example, structure is the
“medium and outcome” agency, whilst agency also has a causal effect on structure (Ma, 2010). Agents then draw on the established set of rules as they act, with compliance encouraged (legitimation) or deviance discouraged (sanctioned), thereby serving to reinforce specific patterns of practice. Power therefore is a key component of agency as it determines legitimation or the sanctioning of rules towards the reproduction of structure (ibid).
Rules are therefore represented by best practices, organizational standards, policies and techniques that are used to form, sustain, change, terminate and recreate information behaviour (Rosenbaum, 2010). Resources on the other hand are represented by the social and/or material elements used to carry out objective-based activities in an organizational setting. Agency allows command over objects, processes and people. Agents, for example
36 top management, (executive managers, board of directors) create, recreate, draw from and are guided by polices in their day-to-day activities. In this respect, managers are knowledgeable (about social life) agents who exercise rules and procedures to make decisions such as giving commands (resources) to lower and middle level managers who also give orders to operational managers. Orders could be directing (or creating policies for) employees on how to manage materialist resources such as printers, servers, computers.
For example, most organizations (if not all) have policies (applying rules to resources) for moving laptops inside or outside the building where each employee is required to have an access card for moving their laptop outside the building. Policies and procedures are re- enforced and modified to produce social structures. The concept of duality of structure is implied in this argument, in that there is a mutual relationship between agency and structure.
Agency cannot exist without structure but they exist as duality. In essence, social structures are both created by human agency and are also the medium and outcome of its constitution in other words there is an interconnection between institutions and structure enabled by exercising practices (Bouthillier, 2000; Loureiro-koechlin, 2008). For example, in the day-to- day actions, employees draw from policies, best practices and standards and therefore actions produce and reproduce social structures.
For example, in most organizations an employee is allocated an asset (laptop), during this time rules and procedures are applied to a resources (laptop). For instance, identification tag with a unique reference number is stored and linked to an employee in the software system used for managing assets. Some rules such as access rights maybe also be granted (by an authorized agent) and be applied in the asset to restrict an agent from installing other than work related software.
It is important and critical for organizations to have policies in place, in particular, so that they can follow best practices and standards in a sustainable manner. However, a policy does not exist in isolation but it is exercised by agents to keep the organization operational, hence, a close relationship between people and policies are essential. In essence, changes in social structures and the relations between actors take place as a result of human actions which are enabled by the structures. In other words, policies, standards and best practices exist in and through the productive practices and relationships of human actors. For example, managers draw from their experiences in order to make decisions, to guide, protect and restrict employees from doing things that could put an organization at risk, such as an information leak.
Further, in a technology development project agents are people involved in the development process. In this situation, rules can be technology design standards, security standards and material quality standards. Then resources are commands given to people building the
37 technology and materialistic artefacts, such as hardware and software. In this process, people use their experience and knowledge to interact and apply standards and make decisions to develop a working product. Decisions involve choosing quality material, technology for developing a usable quality product, which could also serve as a resource for other organizations for maintaining and improving their existing business processes. In this respect, there is a mutual relationship between people creating technology, structure and technology. In essence, technology is itself a representation of rules and resources integrated together to form one unit called a system. The system is developed, changed and used by actors practicing social structures (the capability to make decision, give commands and orders). In other words, technology is a medium of human actions as it mediates their activities. For example, when using technology, users are provided with tools and guidelines which show them how to perform tasks. Structure is produced and reproduced through the interaction of agents exercising social practices to create a system.