Gas and plasma structures
1.2 Structures in the Solar System
Just outside our planet there is an interesting plasma structure, the Van Allen belt, discovered by James Van Allen and his colleagues in the year 1958 (see figure 1.6 on the following page). The discovery was made thanks to an instrument designed by Van Allen himself and installed on Explorer 1, the first American satellite, and on the Explorer 3. This belt is made of charged particles that come from the Sun and are trapped by the magnetic field of the Earth. The Van Allen Belt is located a few thousands kilometres above the surface, where many satellites orbit our planet. These structures are very important because of the threat they pose to these satellites, but they were also a major concern for the astronauts who went to the Moon.
They had to travel through the belt and, despite this they did not suffer from any apparent radiation damage. They did however report flashes of light in their eyes. These were later explained as Cerenkov radiation of the electrons travelling through the liquid medium of the eye. To make the matter worse, but nevertheless more interesting, it has been recently discovered that the
Figure 1.6: The solar wind flowing around the magnetic field of the Earth and the van AlIen belts. (Image European Space Agency)
Van AlIen belt work as a particles accelerator. The solar wind alone in fact does not account for all the observed high energy electrons. The true mech- anisms of the acceleration have not been fully understood, unfortunately, though it is at least partly due to the magnetic mirror mechanism. It is in fact possible that the same mechanism could be used in laboratories to make more powerful particles accelerators based on plasma confinement.
As our planet has an atmosphere, most of the planets in the Solar System
are surrounded by a layer of gas. This is true for Mercury, with its thin atmosphere formed by hydrogen atoms trapped from the solar wind. Venus has a very thick atmosphere, rich in carbon dioxide, that is very unusual among the inner rocky planets. This means that as an optical element it is even more powerful than the Earth's atmosphere. This was observed by the few Russian probes Venera that managed to survive for a few minutes on the surface of the planet, in temperatures up to 4000 centigrade. The dense atmosphere allows to see far below the geometric horizon. According to many scientists, this might be a scary looking picture of the future of our planet. Many scientists claim that Venus was once very similar to the Earth, until a series of powerful volcano eruptions increased dramatically the carbon dioxide level in the atmosphere, triggering a runaway greenhouse effect. If that is true, the arguable mounting evidence of global warming on the Earth might be only the beginning of the process; in our case, the carbon dioxide comes from human activities, but the result could be the same.
Skipping Mars, with its very thin atmosphere, and the asteroids, which are not relevant in our discussion, we find some very impressive gas structures.
The four giant gaseous planets are a fine example of gas structures. These planets are surrounded by a very thick atmosphere and they do not have a solid surface, like the inner rocky planets. Especially the atmosphere of Jupiter is rich in interesting phenomena, due to its size (it is the biggest planet in the solar system) and its relatively small distance from the Sun.
Jupiter's atmosphere is reach of features, from its belts to the famous Great
Figure 1.7: Jupiter and its famous Great Red Spot, in this picture obtained by the Hubble Space Telescope (www.stscLedu).
Red Spot, an ancient hurricane with winds up to 600 m/so In the space around Jupiter there is a magnetosphere similar to the one of the Earth, but within it there is a powerful flux of charged particles that links electrically 10, one of Jupiter satellites, with the poles of the planet. This current of some millions of amperes produces the brightest auroras in the solar system, imaged by the Space Telescope in ultraviolet light.
Among the gaseous giants, Jupiter is the closest one to the Sun, and the still vast amount of energy it receives from our star is the reason of its hectic atmosphere. Saturn is in fact more quiet, with some very stable dark belts and a few spots that appear every few years. But going farther away, the core of Uranus might have a very precious surprise. Deep in the planet atmosphere, some scientists speculate that there is a real hail of diamonds. At something like 12000 km deep, the temperature is high enough to dissociate the methane molecules in their atoms. Then, the pressure is high enough to condense the carbon into a diamond. Unfortunately, the severe conditions do not allow a simple trip to the planet to collect this treasure.
Ifwe consider the solar system as a whole, it is included in a big cocoon made by the particles of the solar wind. These particles are guided by the magnetic field of the Sun, and this heliosphere is really important, even for our life. This structure extends well beyond the orbit of Pluto, but scientists still don't know exactly where the influence of the Sun ends. At the moment, the two Voyager spacecraft are looking for the edge of this structure, that Voyager 1should meet within not more than four years. The Voyager mis-
sion, once the tour of the solar system was concluded, is now called Voyager Interstellar Mission. The boundaries of the magnetosphere are where the solar wind become sub-sonic. Just as our magnetosphere protects the Earth from the solar wind, so the heliosphere protects the whole solar system from the high energy cosmic rays coming from the interstellar space. Some scien- tists speculate that this structure was blown away a few times, in the history of the solar system, when the Sun went through a dense interstellar cloud.
They think that this is the reason for the extinction of the dinosaurs, and maybe for some other mass extinctions in the past. This theory is intriguing, because the extinction of the dinosaurs was followed by a real explosion of new species, that can be explained quite well with the mutations due to the high level of radiation.
At the centre of the solar system there is an interesting plasma structure, a star, our Sun (see picture 1.8 on the next page). A star is in fact nothing else but a very complex plasma structure. The Sun has in its core a temperature and a pressure which are high enough for some thermonuclear reaction to take place. This is the source of energy of most of the solar system, the fusion of four hydrogen atoms into one helium atom. In the outer layer of the Sun the temperature is much lower, but still a few thousands of degrees, enough to make the star very bright. The outer atmosphere of the Sun is very important, because it is the source of the solar wind, already described earlier, where particles are accelerated up to 1000 km/so There are incredible gas structures here, like the solar protu berances, fountains of hot gas that rises
Figure 1.8: A composite image of our Sun obtained by the SOHO probe (so- howww.estec.esa.nl). The left part shows the surface of the Sun as it appears in visible light, the right part in the Hydrogen Q line. Some protuberances are visible, large fountains (structures) of plasma that erupt from the surface pushed by powerful magnetic fields.
above the surface pushed by powerful magnetic fields. The real mechanism of most of these processes has not been fully understood, despite centuries of observations, starting from the ancient Chinese. More recently, the SOHO probe has studied the Sun for a few years, giving some clues to the scientists.
One of the most intriguing mysteries is the temperature of the solar corona, a few million degrees, that lies above a surface with only a few thousand.
The energy, SOHO discovered, is transferred by a magnetic field, but most of the details are still unknown.
Sometimes the Sun emits large amounts of material in what are called coronal mass emissions. When this happens, the Earth is bathed in a much denser solar wind with velocities up to million kilometres per hour. This huge flux of charged particles can affect the communication on the surface and can also disrupt the power distribution lines. To try to prevent this damage, the new science of the space meteorology is being developed all around the world.