CHAPTER 3: Pre-translation: analysis of the source text
3.4 Intratextual factors
3.4.1 Subject matter and themes
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analysis of intratextual factors, and by isolating and analysing thematic concepts (Nord, 2005:96-97).
Nord (2005:97) argues that, in order to fully understand the text, the translator needs to be able to connect the information represented in the text with the world already in his or her mind. Subject matter serves as the blueprint for the content. Nord (2005:98) explains that definitions of content and the actual process of eliciting the content of a text have not received adequate attention in text analysis in the discipline of Translation Studies. As a result, these definitions are vague. Nord (2005:99) suggests some guidelines to help the translator as far as content analysis is concerned. She explains that ‘content’ usually means
“the reference of the text to objects and phenomena in an extralinguistic reality, which could as easily be a fictitious world as the real world” (Nord 2005:99). The coherent content of the text is formed by the lexical and grammatical structures in the text, which means that this is where the translator should start the process of analysing the text. Nord (2005:100) suggests paraphrasing the information in syntactically or semantically complex texts, because this enables the translator to identify presuppositions and sometimes defect incoherence. This does not form the starting point for translation, but does help the translator to elicit the content of the text.
Another factor to consider when analysing content is connotative meaning. This can be a challenging thing to analyse and Nord (2005:101) advises identifying items that are
“probably connotative”; Nord notes that the extratextual category of text function can provide the translator with certain expectations in this area. Certain connotations are part of every speaker’s communicative knowledge and are so common that dictionaries refer to them, while other connotations will only be noticed by people with knowledge of particular social, political, regional or cultural phenomena (Nord, 2005:102). An analysis of content also needs
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to specify to what extent the text is factual or fictional. If a text is fictional, an analysis of the internal situation is required (Nord, 2005:103). As far as Kaburu is concerned, there might be a significant difference between the external situation and internal situation of the text if the text is performed outside South Africa. If the text is performed in South Africa in the near future, most if not all of the audience will be able to relate to the characters. This is because there will be no time gap between the here and now and the events on the stage and the audience will be familiar with the issues of migration and violence in South Africa. But if the text were to be performed in Europe, for example, the audience would have to be informed that the play is situated in South Africa in 2007. In this case, it will be up to the production team to decide which additional information (provided by the translator in explanatory annotations and/or an addendum) to convey to the audience and how.
Kaburu is a thematically coherent, single text. The characters discuss the same issues consistently for the duration of the play. The subject matter verbalised by the characters is extensively bound to the white, Afrikaans-speaking South African cultural context, but contains universal themes such as migration, violence and identity. The main theme of the text is migration and displacement and the way these influence a particular cultural group in South Africa. Migration and displacement feature prominently in discussions between characters – for example, Elna’s discussion with her mother (Opperman, 2008:29-31) – and one of the most intense arguments in the play about these issues occurs between Elna and Bertus (Opperman, 2008:62). According to Coetser (2010:177), the play creates a parallel between South Africans who relocated to East Africa after the Second Anglo Boer War and South Africans who are currently relocating to Canada. The main theme of migration is supported by political, historical themes that are connected to the title. In order to grasp these themes, knowledge about South African history, specifically the wars that occurred from 1899 to 1990, is essential. The title of the play, Kaburu, is taken from the Swahili word
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that means ‘boere’ or ‘farmers’. According to Coetser (2010:191), the name was given to white people from South Africa who moved to Kenya after the Second Anglo Boer War (which ended in 1902). These people were referred to in Afrikaans as ‘bittereinders’, because they fought the war (using guerrilla tactics) after all major cities were occupied by the enemy (as opposed to the ‘hensoppers’, who decided to surrender (Fourshey, 1999:118)). The war came to an end with the treaty of Vereeniging, which was signed on 31 May 1902, after which some who were opposed to British rule emigrated to Kenya (Fourshey, 1999:118). These Afrikaners made a strong impression on the people in Kenya who, according to Bouwer (2007:3), said of them: “we will chase all the white settlers into the sea, but we will leave one white tribe in the South – Kaburu – because if you chase him, he will chase you back”. In the play, the character of Boetjan identifies with this tribe. He claims to share their persistent nature and refuses to be chased from his homeland by violent enemies (Opperman, 2008:64). It is very telling that Opperman decided to use the name of this tribe as the title for the play, for it is indicative of a spirit of persistence and strength. In the play, all the characters refer to events in their lives that had a profound effect on their identity as people of a specific culture and show their reaction to these events in various ways. Bertus had decided to emigrate (Opperman, 2008:33), but Boetjan insists that he will remain no matter how difficult circumstances may become (Opperman, 2008:64).
De Jager and Van Niekerk (2010:15) state that the theme of Afrikaner identity in Kaburu is closely connected with various socio-political issues in contemporary South Africa which, in turn, are connected to the two main wars in South Africa’s history: the Second Anglo Boer War and the Angola (Border) War. These socio-political issues include concerns regarding safety in contemporary South Africa (Opperman, 2008:25), as well as the fear that the white Afrikaner will increasingly experience alienation and will be forced to leave the country (Opperman, 2008:8,63). The male characters in the play, Father, Boetjan and Bertus, often
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discuss these issues and all three characters have very different perspectives that are shaped by their past experiences and current circumstances. Mother and Elna mostly discuss personal and family matters, while Grandmother is primarily concerned that she will be deserted by her children. However, at the end of the play, all the characters will have delivered monologues and interacted with other characters in situations where these issues are discussed, which means that the audience will have had the opportunity to listen to their various perspectives.
In Kaburu, tension about socio-political issues is often hidden behind humorous quips. For example, when the character of Father jokingly says that perhaps ‘they’ (referring to the ANC administration) will soon change all Afrikaans last names to names that sound as if they are derived from African languages (Opperman, 2008:17). Or when the family discusses safety issues and the possibility of the acquisition of wild animals to frighten off criminals (Opperman, 2008:25).
Boetjan and Bertus are much more direct when expressing their perspectives on these issues in contemporary South Africa. Bertus clearly states that the crime rate is unacceptable to him because his parents were victims of crime (Opperman, 2008:69) and he tells us that he now he fears for his wife and son (Opperman, 2008:20,61). Of all the characters in the play, Bertus holds the most extreme viewpoint of South Africa’s socio- political situation. This is directly as a result of his parents being murdered by black robbers, one of whom was the boyfriend of their long-time maid (Opperman, 2008:32,33). Bertus seems to think that there is no hope for change and that the alienation will escalate and drive all white Afrikaner people from the country (Opperman, 2008:63) and that, consequently, he must sever all ties with South Africa if his family is ever to be safe. Because of this, he wants to eradicate his Afrikaner identity and become truly Canadian, along with his wife and son
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(Opperman, 2008:29). Boetjan opposes this view very explicitly and powerfully vocalises his determination to remain in South Africa (Opperman, 2008:64,65). The female characters also disagree with Bertus’ extreme viewpoint. They are not as confrontational as Boetjan, but they feel that Bertus is making a grave mistake by denying his Afrikaner identity and first language (Afrikaans). Grandmother uses the analogy of a tree to oppose Bertus’s views and explains that the roots and the soil are connected and necessary for the tree to grow (Opperman, 2008:35,36). This analogy clearly refers to a person’s cultural and historical origins which are linked to the country of their birth. Their connection to their culture and people provides a strong foundation for the rest of their life. However, the traumatic experience of his parents’ murder has led to Bertus being alienated from this foundation.
Crisis of identity is a pivotal issue for contemporary white Afrikaners, and the character of Bertus depicts this aspect of the current South African socio-political climate very clearly.
Current concepts of Afrikaner identity are shaped by divergent discourses of the past as well as new, developing discourses (De Jager & Van Niekerk, 2010:16). Visser notes that the transfer of power to their former enemy was a traumatic experience for the white Afrikaners who deal with this experience in two ways: either through diaspora or by attempting to redefine their identity (Visser, 2007:2). Diaspora occurs because of various ‘push’ and ‘pull’
factors. Pull factors include better economic circumstances and more lucrative career options, and push factors are “last straw” events that have a significantly negative impact on a person’s life, either directly or indirectly related to an incident occurring to a loved one (Pretorius as quoted by Visser, 2007:30). The diaspora of white Afrikaners has provoked heated debates about emigration in South Africa, with one side arguing for better economic circumstances and the other side claiming that migrators are disloyal and racist for refusing to live under “a black government” (Visser, 2007:10). Critical to this debate is the fear that the Afrikaans language and Afrikaner culture is in danger of becoming extinct (Visser,
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2007:10,11). The claim is made that Afrikaners who emigrate are unable to sustain their Afrikaner identity abroad, and that their descendants will retain very little or nothing of this original identity (Du Toit & Pretorius, as quoted by Visser, 2007:11). Attempts at redefining Afrikaner identity in South Africa are still ongoing and varied. Visser (2007:14) explains that the white Afrikaner nation in 1994 did not anticipate the extent to which they would lose power and become marginalised under the new administration. This unanticipated marginalisation led to disillusionment on the part of some white Afrikaners but also, surprisingly, caused some to publicly reject their Afrikaner identity (Visser, 2007:17). Older generations especially are finding it hard to accept their new status in the contemporary South African socio-political climate and are particularly concerned about the Afrikaans language (Visser, 2007:23,24). Younger generations are finding other ways to cope with this identity crisis, such as expressing their identity through art at culture festivals. One song that was a product of this creativity, De la Rey, became very contentious because of its praises for an Afrikaner general from the Second Boer War, Koos de la Rey, and praise for his leadership. It was suggested that the song might incite right-wing factions to commit acts of violence or take up arms against the ANC government (Wines, 2007). The song became so popular and contentious Wines (2007) even discussed it in the New York Times. Visser (2007:30) concludes that the development of a new Afrikaner identity is an ongoing process that is still in its infancy. He goes on to say that establishing a new Afrikaner identity will require creativity, commitment, imagination and a disengagement from their racist history (Slabbert, as quoted by Visser, 2007:28).
Another theme that is closely related to the issue of identity is the theme of alienation of the white Afrikaner through Affirmative Action (AA), Black Economic Empowerment (BEE), and land disownment. These concepts are strategies employed by the post-apartheid administration in an attempt to redress the wrongs of the past and are contentious issues in
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contemporary South Africa (Kovacevic, 2007). Kovacevic (2007) notes that these strategies have not been successful in helping to empower black people or redistribute wealth, but have, to date, only succeeded in benefiting an elite few. In Kaburu, there are several instances where the characters discuss these issues. Examples include Father’s comparison between the seventeenth-century French Huguenots and contemporary South Africans, who emigrate because they feel persecuted (Opperman, 2008:8). Father’s reference to name changes (Opperman, 2008:17) and Bertus’ remarks about the strategies employed by the current South African administration to right the wrongs of the past through Affirmative Action and Black Economic Empowerment (Opperman, 2008:64). The rendition of these units will be discussed in chapter 4 of this dissertation.