CHAPTER ONE: ORIENTATION AND OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
1.14. Summary
In this introductory chapter I outlined the background to the problem, explained the statement of the problem and the main research question with sub-research questions that guided the study. Furthermore, the rationale for undertaking of the study was given. An overview of the theoretical frameworks underpinning the study is also explained and key terms were defined. Finally, the research methodology was discussed. In the next chapter, I present a review of related literature.
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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction
The previous chapter gave an introductory background to the study. This chapter presents a review of literature relevant to the study. In recognition of the view that no study operates in a vacuum (McMillan & Schumacher, 2006), and that there is a need to anchor any significant study on a firm foundation in the relevant literature, focus in this literature review was given to literature that bears on themes related to the research study’s sub- research questions. This was done in order to ensure critical and extensive engagement with the literature relevant and appropriate to the study. The literature review was thematically informed; five themes were developed and these themes guided the search process and the text inclusion and exclusion criteria. The literature search was also historically sought and progressed organically within the remit of the search criteria.
Furthermore, the review of literature was organised according to the five themes which include:
i) Perspectives on Access, Throughput and Success interventions in Higher Education ii) Identification of students as “at risk” of academic failure in Higher Education
iii) Pre-enrolment factors and becoming “at risk” of academic failure in Higher Education iv) Post-enrolment factors and being “at risk” of academic failure in Higher Education
v) Academic Support Programmes as intervention for students “at risk” of academic failure in Higher Education
2.2.1 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES ON ACCESS, THROUGHPUT AND SUCCESS INTERVENTIONS IN HIGHER EDUCATION
In the last two decades, the global trend for higher institutions of learning has seen a growth in the physical access rate of students from divergent backgrounds (Gladieux and Swail, 2000), for instance, it was reported that across Europe, the United Kingdom and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, that students’ participation over the last twenty years has recorded high improvement (Archer, 2005). Internationalisation has also meant that universities have increased access to students from diverse communities (Adams, 2006).
Studies, however also show that higher institutions are struggling to cope with increasing numbers of local students in terms of infrastructure as well as personnel. Internationalisation has made it such that higher institutions are further challenged by the influx of foreign students in terms of maintaining old-fashioned
established morals and practices (Hsieh, 2012). Perhaps, these trends continue to necessitate the need to develop academic programmes and models capable of accommodating a larger and more diverse student population.
Arguably, increased access to Higher Education has also brought pressure on governments, especially in the contexts of countries where there are huge aspects of state funding channelled to Higher Education (Gladiex
&Swails, 2000).
Equally identifiable are a number of challenges that higher institutions have in fashioning solutions to the multiple and contested problems that have arisen with increasing expansions of access. Such solutions have had to include planning for, and putting into place intervention support strategies, inclusion polices, strategies for students’ readiness, resources and learning spaces’ infrastructure improvements and upgrades, etc. (Lau,2003).
This study focuses on students’ intervention support experiences and their academic challenges.
Globally, increasing rates of students’ access has brought into focus the question of readiness of both higher institutions and the students themselves for the challenges of enhancing academic progress and success of students; however, it is nonetheless noted that the level of readiness differs in each country (Archer, 2005). The implications of these developments have been the increasing concerns within higher institutions with students’
access, progress and throughput by way of initiating programmes and interventions designed “to equip them with knowledge and skills that will enable them to succeed in their studies” (Adams, 2006:15).
It is, however observed that increasing global access to higher education is not matched by the same level of growth in resources and infrastructure in the higher institutions ( Hubball and Burt, 2004), therefore, it has been argued that in order to balance the intake with the throughput rate, extensive intervention support programmes should be established (Agar and Knopfmacher, 1995). How this act of balancing is achieved within the South African Higher Education landscape is important to study and understand. Perhaps this is particularly so in order to further develop systems that best enhance students’ success.
2.2.2 SOUTH AFRICAN PERSECTIVES ON ACCESS, THROUGHPUT RATE AND INTERVENTION STRATEGIES IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Expanding access and ensuring throughput in South African Universities had been identified in literature as a perennial challenge (Goastellec, 2010). Since the 1930s, evidence from literature shows that the nature of access and throughput challenge has changed over time. Due to the restricting policies of the apartheid era before the
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inceptions of the transformation period in Higher Education beginning 1996, there were imbalances amongst racial groups in terms of student access to higher institutions (Akojee & Nkomo 2007). According to Akojee and Nkomo (2008), the social and political agenda that accompanied the transition and transformation era of South African Universities has meant that the challenge of access has been defined within these agendas.
Defining access refers to first entry to a higher institution. Letseka and Pitsoe (2013) explain access contextually, as applied to South African Higher education, to mean the process whereby students register to study a certain degree or profession full time. Furthermore, he explains that access means that students are accepted and admitted based on certain criteria such as matric points. According to Nyamapfene and Letseka (1995) and Moll (2004), however access in higher education is challenged by under-preparedness of students who come from secondary schools to engage with teaching and learning at university level. Some of these students are recognized as coming from homes where they are first generation university students implying that their social network is limited. These categories of students may be coming into the university with little exposure to the notions of university life and experiences.
The South African Higher Education system has expanded considerably in the size of its enrolments and has reached a considerable gain (Council on Higher Education, 2010). As the CHE’s State of Higher Education Report (2009) has indicated, the system has made important gains; however, it is observed that the general performance of Higher Education is not completely satisfactory (Ntakana, 2011). Boughey (2003) concurs by stating that as much as access into Higher Education has improved, epistemological access is still a concern.
While gains in access to higher education are being made, the not-so-smooth transition from secondary school level to university undergraduate studies’ level expectations, in the South African context, remains a challenge that compromises student success.
The deficits of apartheid still continue to reflect on the social and economic stratification of South Africa. To date, it can still be said that South Africans are divided along the line of advantaged and dis-advantaged, at least in terms of access to Higher Education. The diverse nature of the student population since the opening up of access to Higher Education (Chikte and Brand, 1996; Goduka, 1996a) attests to the diversity that defines the Higher Education space, particularly in terms of race, gender, social status, cultural lineage and levels of academic achievements. The possible implications of these are continued reenactments of the legacy of higher educational access equating to privilege as a carry-over prejudice from apartheid era; therefore, it can be said that students who enter the higher institutions come from different cultural backgrounds with different life practices, educational opportunities and a great variety of prospects, of learning needs and requirements and of
academic potentials (Fraser & Killen, 2005). McKenzie and Schweitzer (2001) recognise that the focus of Higher Education Institutions continues to shift from restrictedness to expansion of access to other races and working class people and the opening of doors to accommodate a diverse community of students.
Presently, some higher institutions in South Africa offer “Access” programmes. These are programmes that are specially designed as bridging courses aimed at ensuring that students who do not meet university entry requirements, particularly those that come from disadvantaged backgrounds, are supported foundationally to start their degree studies (Waetjen, 2006; Maphosa & Mudzielwana, 2014). The South African government also gives scholarships and loans such as National Students Financial Aid Scheme (NSFSAS) to students from low socio-economic status backgrounds to access higher education (Wangenge‐Ouma, 2010). Whereas opening up of access to higher education has translated into opportunity for students from diverse backgrounds to enter the university, it has also opened up other challenges for higher education access. The emerging issues around what has been recognized as epistemological access in South African Higher Education are particularly of concern ((Slonimsky and Shalem 2006).
As much as access to Higher Education has its own advantages for the country a number of drawbacks have been noted, especially amongst different racial groups. Students from low social and economic backgrounds are challenged by learning barriers such as lack of finances, and social network and resources, inferiority complex and fear of failing their studies (Steyn, 2009). Access has also brought the challenges of institutional readiness, government readiness, family readiness as well as students’ readiness to engage with epistemological access and processes of knowledge in higher institutions ( Pandor, 2005; Akooje and Nkomo, 2007). Due to increasing physical access of students, universities are now faced with challenges such as under-preparedness of the new- entrant first-year student; for instance, the medium of instruction, which is English language (second language), serves as a barrier to some students in Africa (Nkosi, 2013). Leibowitz (2004) confirms that students are not only dealing with the challenges of adapting to a new academic environment but with challenges of using the language at university which is not their first language. These barriers impact student retention and throughput.
Approximately one in every three students enrolling at South African Universities will have dropped out by the end of their first year of study (Van Schalkwyk, 2007). Reasons for drop-out especially for first years (Lau, 2003), have been noted as; firstly those reasons beyond institutional control such as lack of finances, poor student-institution fit and career change. Secondly, other reasons within institutional control are when institutions fail to create a conducive environment for teaching and learning inside and outside the classroom.
Thirdly, reasons based on the student as an individual can result in drop-out (Lau, 2003). In addition to what is
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highlighted by the literature, in practice what is noted is that some students drop out because of the overwhelming new environment such as change in infrastructure and need for conformity with new and complex university environments. Moreover some are faced with the huge responsibility of decision-making and coping with life challenges. Due to the perceived impact of these reasons on the drop-out rate in South African universities, there is a call for the provision of support capacity provided by counselling and development centres to attend to students’ support needs (Morrison, Brand & Cilliers, 2006).
Ntakana (2011) suggests that if a higher education system is to engage in effective learning and prevent learning breakdown, it is crucial that strategies that aim at breaking down barriers to learning be organised into the