It is evident that the vast majority of studies find that the success of implementing inclusive education in any environment is directly attributable to the standard of teacher training in that environment. Yet, the studies in 3.4 have all referred to the problems associated with professional development.
The research that follows will describe lessons that have been learnt in the development of effective teacher training programmes and will lead to a synopsis of potentially useful strategies. By way of introduction, a study by Porter and Lacey (2005) will be referred to. Porter and Lacey state that in order for teacher training to be effective, there firstly needs to be “an on-going assessment of teacher training needs” (2005: p. 76). They go on to state that this should be done at a central, district-level based level as a practical indication of the district’s commitment to furthering inclusive education. They list the priorities of teacher training as being multi-level instruction, co-operative
learning, and enrichment through the curriculum as well as strategies on how to deal with students who have behaviour problems (Porter & Lacey, 2005: p. 76). Finally, Porter and Lacey suggest that teacher training should be done in a pro-active manner whereby peer support groups are developed in order to engage in collaborative problem-solving (2005: p.76).
A slightly older study by Forlin and Chambers (2001) looked at the preparation of pre-service teachers, which although not obviously applicable to this study, can also provide us with some guidance into building a useful strategy for training teachers. In response to their belief that “the role of the generalist teacher is now affirmed as being an important component in the success or otherwise of inclusive education practice” (Forlin & Chambers, 2001: p. 17), Forlin and Chambers studied a module that was designed for pre-service teachers. The module was designed in such a way that it consisted of strategies that promote inclusive education in the classroom as well as discussions regarding the benefits and difficulties of inclusive education (2001).
When they looked at the attitudes towards inclusive education, they found that pre-service teachers were happy to accommodate learners with mild support needs but less supportive of those with more intensive support needs. They found the students were somewhat more positive after they had completed the inclusive education module, although they remained hesitant about teaching learners who are physically aggressive (Forlin & Chambers, 2001: p. 23).
The concerns that these pre-service teachers had with regards to inclusive education closely mirror those of in-service teachers. Forlin and Chamber’s 2001 study revealed that most of the pre-service teachers were concerned about their own lack of knowledge, the difficulty in providing attention to all the students as well as in the increased workload involved. However, the primary concern for the students was the lack of staff in schools to support inclusion and a lack of adequate resources. They were least concerned about the impact that inclusive education would have on their stress levels and on the learners being stigmatised by their peers. They found no correlation between the attitudes of the learners and their concerns about inclusive education due to previous training, a level of experience in teaching students with disabilities or the qualifications of the students. They did, however, find a strong link between the perceived levels of confidence, knowledge, attitudes and the concerns of students about inclusive education. They found that there was significantly more confidence in students, particularly in terms of their ability to teach students with special needs, after they had completed the module on inclusive education. There was a similar correlation in terms of knowledge regarding the legislation on inclusive education (Forlin & Chambers, 2001).
In essence, this study showed that what pre-service teachers want most is a study unit on diversity with a greater emphasis on how to modify curricula. But this study also proved that “improving knowledge and confidence alone is insufficient to improve attitudes towards inclusion” (Forlin &
Chambers, 2001: p.29). The lessons learnt from this study can be applied to the preparation of in- service teachers. This topic will be explored further in what remains of this chapter.
2.6.1. Successful in-service training
A 1983 study by Fagen and Wintrol addressed a number of strategies for training teachers to deal with students who are in some manner disabled. From the outset, the study supported the need for teachers to undergo some training pertaining specifically to inclusive education by stating that “it is clear that handicapped students are more likely to succeed in mainstream when the teacher has developed skills for classroom accommodations” (Fagen & Wintrol, 1983: p.6). However, whilst this need has been recognised on numerous occasions, practical strategies to bring this about have been lacking.
Fagen and Wintrol (1983) identify a number of problems with in-service training and suggested various strategies to combat these problems. The first problem identified was that of the need for in-service training versus the limited funding available, which teachers would rather use in other ways. In-service teachers have limited time and funding available with which to make a concerted effort to develop their professional skills in terms of inclusive practices. The second problem dealt with the need for in-service training being positioned against the competitive priorities of the community. Fagen and Wintrol (1983) highlighted the impracticality of expecting teachers to learn all that they need to know from a simple, one-day workshop. However, it is possible in one day to motivate and inspire these teachers to apply themselves to becoming inclusive practitioners. A willing teacher is more likely to make the time and funding available to pursue their skills development. They also suggested that in-service training should be realistic and build on the existing strengths and resources within a school, and where possible make use of people within the community to do the training. The teachers are more likely to relate well to these people and the people presenting will have a better understanding of the individual intricacies at play within that environment. Some staff members should be selected to do further training in the area of inclusive education. This selection should be done on the basis of talent and the chosen teachers must be willing to take on the responsibility of training their colleagues. In selecting such staff members, the strength of the teachers’ characters will need to be borne in mind as these persons would be likely
to face opposition from colleagues who are against the implementation of inclusive education (Fagen & Wintrol, 1983).
Related to this, are the problems posed by the need for in-service training versus the natural obstacle presented by the staff themselves, such as an unwillingness to reform the education system in place and negative attitudes towards learners with disabilities. One must also remember that in today’s frenetic world, teachers are increasingly suffering from depleted energy levels and are pre- occupied by the number of tasks that they have already been burdened with. Staff members who have been forced to teach learners with barriers to learning in the past, with no formal training on how to do this, may have developed resentment towards inclusive education as a result of this experience. In order to improve the standard of or, in some cases, rate of in-service training happening in schools, a number of special measures need to be put in place. Firstly, skilled specialists should be provided to manage the in-service development of teachers. Local school staff could possibly be identified to co-ordinate the in-service training of a group of their colleagues. It is also imperative that any training does not place additional pressure on the staff, thus a range of staff development options should be on offer to present the teachers with the most appropriate options for their circumstances. Finally, an assessment- prescription approach should be employed to assist staff in identifying their strengths and weaknesses (Fagen & Wintrol, 1983: p.8).
Despite the age of this study, it is clear that the work of Fagen and Wintrol (1983) is still highly relevant. Subsequent studies discussed in this dissertation (Porter & Lacey, 2005; Walton, Nel &
Muller, 2006; Ntombela, 2011) have all echoed the sentiments of their work (Fagen and Wintrol, 1983) in spite of the varying contexts in which their research took place.
2.6.2. Reforming teacher education, enhancing teacher preparedness
A number of studies into teacher preparedness conducted by Forlin (2010b) have largely echoed the findings of Fagen and Wintrol (1983). In this particular presentation, Forlin’s work deals with “a range of changes that have been implemented internationally to transform teacher education to better facilitate the learning of teachers in preparation for inclusion” (Forlin, 2010b. p. 649)
As discussed earlier, Forlin (2010b) found that the greatest challenge teachers were up against was that of finding time for teachers to continue studying in the area of inclusive education. This issue is especially prominent in rural locations where teachers may need to spend time travelling to and from resource centres for the purposes of this training. However, she also found that in the digital
age this is easily overcome with online learning courses. An online model by Phyllis Jones (in Forlin, 2010b) was used as an example whereby a small number of teachers from a wide range of schools, who were already dealing with low incidences of learning disabilities, were engaged in a collaborative paradigm. This model proved to be effective as the teachers provided each other with much needed support and were able to share ideas in a minimally restrictive environment (Forlin, 2010). This also allowed the teachers to interact with a number of para-professionals as needed.
However, in order to be successful it was noted that a degree of empathy was required by all parties involved (Forlin, 2010).
Further to this, the study by Forlin (2010) highlighted the need for all training to be integrated into a number of ‘across the board’ areas. One of the problems identified was that all studies into inclusive education are done as stand-alone studies as opposed to being presented as a philosophy of education that should be used to underpin all classroom activity (Forlin, 2010).
Finally, Forlin (2010: p. 652) highlighted that “didactic lecture style teaching by teacher educators does not help teachers experience the inclusive pedagogies that they are expected to engage with as teachers”. The implication here is that teachers could benefit significantly more from the training they receive if it was done in such a fashion that they are able to model the presentation and teaching techniques of the professional doing the training (Forlin, 2010).
2.6.3. The influence of educators’ attitudes
The preparation for this research, revealed an enormous wealth of information pertaining to the influence that educators’ attitudes have on the successful implementation on inclusive education.
This topic has been briefly discussed, but will be explored in greater depth through the works of Madikane, Ntshangase and Mayekiso (2006), who conducted research into the attitudes held by pre- service educators towards inclusive education.
In essence, this study (Madikane, Ntshangase & Mayekiso, 2006: p. 130) concluded that pre-service teachers “are generally positive about inclusive education. Pre-service training in inclusive education and continued professional development are of paramount significance if inclusive education is to be successfully implemented”. Whilst this research pertains to pre-service educators as opposed to the focus on in-service educators in this researcher’s study; the link between adequate training in inclusive education matters and the attitude of educators is obvious (Madikane, Ntshangase &
Mayekiso, 2006).
A 2002 research paper by Avramidis and Norwich has provided us with a wealth of information into the attitude of teachers towards inclusion. In addition to looking at the factors that impact on teacher acceptance of inclusion, Avramidis and Norwich (2002: p. 129) found that “the successful implementation of any inclusive policy is largely dependent on educators being positive about it”
and that teachers attitudes are “strongly influenced by the nature and severity of the disabling condition presented to them”. Although this research paper was taken from a wide range of studies conducted in developed countries, the information pertaining to the factors impacting on teacher acceptance of inclusion is also applicable to the South African context.
Avramidis and Norwich (2002) identified three variables that impact on teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion, namely child-related variables, teacher-related variables and educational environment- related variables. In terms of child-related variables, they found that teachers were more accepting of children with physical and sensory disabilities than learners with learning difficulties and cognitive disabilities. Many teachers have severe concerns about the integration of learners with emotional and behavioural difficulties. There are a wide variety of teacher variables to be considered ranging from the gender of the teacher to the socio-political views of these teachers. Avramidis and Norwich found through their studies that female teachers tend to be more positive towards inclusion, as are younger teachers who have less than 14 years of teaching experience (2002: p. 136). Interestingly there is a correlation between the grade that the teachers teach and their level of support for inclusion. The study found that teachers, who teach learners in the higher grades, are generally more supportive of inclusion than teachers who teach the lower grades. The major factors involved in teacher-related variables are those of prior contact with people with disabilities, training received as well as the personal beliefs of the teachers. As would be expected, teachers who have had experience interacting with children who have disabilities in an educational setting have a more positive attitude towards the integration of these learners into mainstream schools. Similarly, those teachers that have received training to deal specifically with the needs of these learners have more positive attitudes. Teachers who subscribe to the medical model of disability have a significantly poorer attitude towards the inclusion of these learners. There is also obviously a positive correlation between teachers who have a more democratic view of society and their acceptance of inclusion in the classroom (Avramidis & Norwich, 2002). Finally, Avramidis and Norwich (2002) also discussed the importance of variables related to the educational environment. In schools where there was a greater availability of support, be it in the form of financial resources or human resources, teachers showed a more positive attitude towards inclusion.
In essence, this study has supported the claims of many other studies (particularly the work of D’Amant, 2009, discussed in this dissertation) that positive teacher attitudes are a vital part of implementing inclusion, and in order to develop these positive attitudes, teachers need to be adequately prepared to deal with the new challenges facing them in the classroom (Avramidis &
Norwich, 2002).
2.6.4. The use of on-line professional development
In this technologically driven era it would be foolish to ignore the possibility of on-line programmes to develop teachers’ knowledge and skills for inclusive education. Jones (2010) found that in order for on-line learning to be successful there needs to be a degree of dialogue, structure and learner autonomy in place (2010: p.154).
Jones (2010) suggested the following 7-step programme as an example of a course that could be presented to teachers. The first step would be an introduction that frames the study the teachers are undertaking by using a 20 minute video as a ‘hook’ to get the teachers’ attention. The second step calls on the teachers to reflect on their current understandings and practices. Based on this the teachers select a number of articles to analyse based on what is most relevant to their situation. The fourth step consists of 2 videos of a modern classroom in comparison to a more traditional classroom in order to encourage the teachers to reflect on the similarities and differences between the two. Step five consists of a school-based activity to enable the teacher to apply what has been learnt on-line to the physical classroom environment. The final two steps conclude the programme by the teacher writing a reflective paper on the changing curriculum and finally to share their work and what they have learnt with a colleague (Jones, 2010: p. 154 – 156).
Whilst Jones (2010) acknowledged that on-line has a number of positive features, most of which are centred on the ease with which teachers can engage with the latest developments in inclusive practices; she also acknowledges the cons associated with on-line learning. The disadvantages include the huge amount of time that such a programme takes to develop and maintain as well as the tendency to have large classes in order to make the exercise worthwhile, which limits personal interactions between the programme leaders and the teachers being developed. The final disadvantage is the level of technical prowess required by programme leaders and the teachers, as well as the availability of suitable equipment (Jones, 2010: p.159). In light of these disadvantages, such a system would have to be carefully considered in the South African environment where the
majority of the teaching profession does not have access to the appropriate technology. However, as this particular thesis is dealing specifically with affluent schools, which have access to technology, on-line training can be considered a useful tool in the training of teachers for inclusive education.
2.6.5. Teacher preparation for inclusive education internationally
South Africa is not unique in its quest to transform its education system to an inclusive one, recognising that the key to this change being successful lies with the effective training of all staff involved with education.
The final aspect of this chapter is to address the nature of professional development in various countries around the world, which have similar contexts to that of South Africa and from which guidance could possibly be sought.
2.6.5.1. Thailand
In response to growing numbers of students presenting with learning disabilities, the Thai government instituted moves towards an inclusive education system in 1999. However, Thailand has struggled with professional development for teachers as there is not a large resource of professionals trained in special needs education on which to draw, as is the case in South Africa. The Thai training programme was centred on three different groups namely teachers, parents and administrators, all with a programme designed specifically for their needs (Kantavong &
Sivabhaedya, 2010).
In order to overcome the challenges faced in Thailand, the training aimed specifically at teachers, consisted of five days of intensive training, followed by a three month period in which the teachers were expected to apply what they had learnt in their classrooms through assessing their lesson plans and materials and making appropriate changes. After three months the teachers were then visited by the programme developers to assess their progress in becoming inclusive practitioners. There was an emphasis on differentiated teaching methods in the classroom as well as allowing the teachers to develop their skills by focusing on one learning disability that was of interest to them. By doing this, the teachers felt as if they could use the knowledge they gained through the training in the practical environment of the classroom. They also found feedback from the programme developers to be beneficial (Kantavong & Sivabhaedya, 2010: p.227).