2.9 Implementing Curriculum Change: exploring themes from the Teachers’ Perspective
2.9.3 Teachers’ capacity to implement curriculum changes
Across literature, review on the word capacity it is realized that there are a variety of names and meanings attached to it in literature. For the purpose of this study, capacity will imply the teachers’ ability to deliver content in a manner leading to learners’ learning (Fullan, 2007). Developing a teachers’ capacity occurs in the form of teacher preparation at the teacher training college and university level, on-going
43 professional development. Although are other pre-service preparation avenues for teachers, the selected ones are the major areas to be considered for this review.
These areas of pre-service preparation have played a large role in capacity building for teacher professionalism (Fullan et al., 2006; Fullan, 2007; Sowell, 2005).
A nation’s efforts and ability to build and support teacher capacity, along with incentives to attract and keep talented teachers and allocate talent equitably across all public schools are the fundamental platform for a successful education (Swanson, Hightower, Lloyd, Mitani, Wittenstein, & Reed, 2008). Sowell (2005) states that there is a direct relationship between learners’ achievement outcomes with teacher capacity such as their professional development and college and university level teacher preparation.
College and University Level Preparation for effective implementation of curriculum change
Before becoming, a teacher one has to be trained through a college or university responsible for teacher development and preparation programs. The quality of such training will hugely reflect the teachers’ capacity to teacher her learners effectively and likewise contributes to the classroom experience of teachers (Sowell, 2005).
According to Fullan et al. (2006) formative assessments are the only reliable measure of learners’ learning inside the classroom and a reflection of the teacher’s capacity to teach. Such assessments are made up of large-scale test score (such as PISA or PIRLS). However, Hargreaves (2007) and Sahlberg (2006) argued against high-stakes testing and teacher accountability measures through such assessment methods because although teachers work harder to ensure improved their learner test scores, the tests do not improve learner learning.
According to Leithwood and McAdie (2007) only four states in America have data collection systems in place to link learner achievement and teacher capacity, based on college and university level preparation. One of these states is Florida. In a study by Harris and Sass (2007) they found minimal relationship between undergraduate teacher preparation and learner achievement outcomes. However, the researchers found that content-focused professional development had an impact on the learner achievement at the high school level. On the other hand, research has shown that
44 there is a compelling argument to increase the amount of money in teacher preparation courses as a requirement in teacher education programs at the undergraduate level (Sowell, 2005).
Leithwood and McAdie (2007) found a positive correlation between increased pre- service teachers’ understanding of content knowledge and increased learners’
academic performance. With specific emphasis on the accounting subject, they further noted that teachers need a minimum of six semester courses in accounting for substantial positive effects on their learners’ understanding of accounting. It is therefore evident that more coursework for pre-service teachers in accounting will improve learner understanding in accounting as well. Therefore, the quality of pre- service teacher preparation could contribute to a teacher’s classroom experience and such experience could leads to their stay in the job or leaving. Within the South African context in-service teacher do not have a harmonize support service at the school level for those who seems to be poorly prepared for the teaching of the subject they have been employed for. The onus is upon the teacher to improve on his or her content knowledge rather than the school’s responsibility to do so. The effect on teachers’ pre-service preparation thus has a relationship with the teacher’s subsequent classroom experience.
On-going Professional Growth
In Bennett (2002) analysis of Progressive era in education, he realized that workload, commitment and administrative support are closely connected to successful professional learning. Bennett argues that teachers need release time for on-going learning and administrative support to provide relevant professional development opportunities at the school levels. These release time should be done by colleges and universities, teacher organizations (such as SADTU in South Africa) and other external agencies (such as NGOs) should provide important on-going professional learning opportunities for classroom teachers (Fullan, 2007; Sahlberg, 2006). These on-going professional growth programs are referred to as staff development programs in South Africa and are usually done through seminar. An example of such programs could be seen during the time of curriculum disseminations organized by the DoE in conjunction with the teachers’ unions (SADTU).
45 As discussed earlier, Harris and Sass (2007) research on learner achievement as it relates to teacher characteristics in Florida allowed the researchers to connect learner performance to the identity of their classroom teacher, and in turn link the teachers to their in-service training, their college coursework along with their pre- teacher training college entrance exam performance. Harris & Sass (2007) found that undergraduate teacher preparation has little effect on their learner academic performance. Nevertheless, content-focused professional development pre-service program has a positive impact on learner achievement at high school levels. In agreement with the findings, Sowell (2005) suggested that teachers who are inadequately prepared in content knowledge (accounting inclusive) can as well be developed through a progressive series of professional growth courses in their subject of teaching. Such programs will have a huge impact on the classroom experience of in-service teacher most especially during curriculum reform or change.
With specific reference to the American context of teaching, there are existing professional development opportunities in subject area specialization. These professional development opportunities are available online such as the National Council for Economic Education, University of Wisconsin. There are also new online and face-to-face opportunities in all subject area of specialization that are continually being added regularly (Thornton, 2005).
Standards and Uncertainty
Fullan (2007) recognized that most novice teachers have doubts about their capacity, but found the comments of experienced teachers most relevant. Although a teaching career provides job security, Sowell, (2005) argues that it does not contribute much; to publicly recognize the achievements of an individual teacher and no other career steps are available in the teaching profession to provide recognition.
Therefore, teachers rely on subjective, intangible, and complex relationships with learners who do not have a choice besides attending school to alleviate their feelings of uncertainty and this often causes more self-doubt than certainty (Elmore, 2004;
Marsh, & Willis, 2005). These reasons could possibly leads to a reduction of the teacher’s psychic rewards, lower morale and decreasing commitment.
The introduction of teacher accountability movement of the 1990s resulted in the introduction of education standards in many countries around the world (Sahlberg,
46 2006). The Goals 2000: Educate America Act (1994) initiated the development of national content standards in the United States and included learner achievement goals of demonstrating citizenship and personal responsibility and an understanding of the diverse cultural heritage of the United States. This move by the government saw an increase in the standard of teaching and further enrich the classroom experience of teachers. Glidden (2008) used standards for teachers to address the uncertainty of teachers. She argued that a clear, specific content standard give teachers’ greater confidence in their teaching practices. In her analysis across America, she found that only Massachusetts and Virginia have created strong content standards in social studies across all grade levels and areas of teaching. In addition, only Virginia has created strong standards in all four core content areas:
English, math, science and social studies.