Chapter 1 Introduction
2.7 Conceptual framework
2.7.1 Technology acceptance models
Researchers use a variety of technology acceptance models to study why and how individuals adopt new technologies (Venkatesh et al., 2003). These models seek to predict and explain how and why individuals adopt and use new technologies and examine what hinders use and intention to use the technology. Technology acceptance models focus on
40
an individual’s intention to use a new technology as the predictor of use and technology adoption (Davis, 1989; Davis et al., 1989). Research in IT acceptance has yielded many competing models, each with different sets of acceptance determinants. Some of these models have similar constructs and determinants but use different terminology. Some are limited in scope and others are quite comprehensive. For example, the theory of planned behaviour focuses heavily on behavioural aspects. However, it is limited in that it deals with perceptions of control rather than with actual control issues. Researchers are confronted with a choice of models and generally choose constructs from one or two models and ignore contributions from alternative models (Venkatesh et al., 2003). To eliminate this confusion among researchers who intend to study users’ intentions and behaviour towards new technologies, it is useful to use a theory that can integrate the available models into one unified model. In response to this need, Venkatesh et al. (2003) reviewed user acceptance literature and discussed eight prominent models, empirically compared the eight models and their extensions, formulated a unified model that integrated elements across the eight models, and empirically validated the unified model called the UTAUT. The eight models reviewed are the theory of reasoned action (TRA) (Fishbein &
Ajzen, 1975), technology acceptance model (Davis et al., 1989), theory of planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), the combination of technology acceptance model and theory of planned behaviour (C-TAM theory of planned behaviour) (Taylor & Todd, 1995), model of PC utilisation (Thompson, Higgins, & Howell, 1991), diffusion of innovation theory (DOI) (Moore &Benbasat 1991), social cognitive theory (SCT) (Compeau & Higgins, 1995), and the motivational model (Davis et al., 1992).
2.7.1.1 Theory of reasoned action
Derived from the social psychology setting, the TRA is one of the most fundamental and influential theories of human behaviour (Venkatesh et al., 2003). TRA was first proposed by Fishbein and Ajzen (1975). Three constructs make up the TRA, namely, behavioural intention (BI), attitude (A) and subjective norms (SN). TRA suggests that a person's behavioural intention depends on the person's attitude about the behaviour and subjective norms (BI = A +SN). Attitude towards the behaviour is defined as the individual's positive or negative feelings about performing the behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975, p. 216).
41
The next main construct in TRA, subjective norm, is defined as "the person's perception that most people who are important to him or her think he should or should not perform the behaviour in question" (Fishbein and Ajzen 1975, p. 302). In other words, TRA suggests that a person’s voluntary behaviour is predicted by his or her attitude towards that behaviour and how he or she thinks other people would view them if he or she performed the behaviour, that is, users consider other people’s views before they decide. In the UTAUT model, the construct social influence captures the concept of the subjective norm construct embodied in TRA
2.7.1.2 Technology acceptance model
As the TRA (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975) did not cater for any technological innovation in its application, Davis’ technology acceptance model (1989) provided more insight into technology use. He proposed that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use were fundamental factors influencing the user’s acceptance as they influence the user’s attitude towards a technology or system. He defined perceived usefulness as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular technology or system would enhance his or her job performance” and perceived ease of use as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular technology or system would be free from effort” (Davis, 1989, p. 4).
Venkatesh and Davis (2000) extended the original technology model to explain perceived usefulness and usage intentions in terms of the social influence process and the cognitive instrumental processes. The extended model was referred to as TAM2 (Venkatesh &
Davis, 2000). In TAM2, the social influence process highlights the impact of three interrelated social forces impinging on an individual facing the opportunity to adopt or reject a new technology or system. These include the subjective norm, voluntariness and image factor for user acceptance. The TAM2 highlights the individual’s job relevance and output quality and have results demonstrability and perceived ease of use as other fundamental determinants of user acceptance. About 40% variance in intention to use and usage of technology by individuals in organisational settings being explained consistently is the key strength of the technology acceptance model (Mac Callum, Jeffrey & Kinshuk, 2014). The technology acceptance model has been used in various educational contexts, like
42
technology adoption by student teachers, carrying out a laptop use program and learning online (Straub, 2009). In the UTAUT model, performance expectancy, effort expectancy and social influence take the concepts of the perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and subjective norm constructs from the technology acceptance model and TAM2.
2.7.1.3 Theory of planned behaviour
The theory of planned behaviour is an extension of the TRA developed by Ajzen (1991).
In addition to constructs of attitude towards both behaviour and the subject norm found in the TRA, the construct of perceived behavioural control is included in the theory of planned behaviour. Perceived behavioural control is the expected difficulty of using the technology (Ajzen, 1991) and the perception of both internal and external constraints when using technology (Taylor & Todd, 1995). In the UTAUT model, social influence and facilitating conditions capture the concepts of the subjective norm and perceived behavioural control constructs represented in theory of planned behaviour.
2.7.1.4 Combined technology acceptance model and theory of planned behaviour Taylor and Todd (1995) developed a hybrid model by combining the predictors of theory of planned behaviour with the constructs from technology acceptance model. This model combines the perceived usefulness predictor of the technology acceptance model and attitude towards behaviour, subjective norms and perceived behavioural control, all from the theory of planned behaviour, to form the four factors that predict intentions to use (Taylor and Todd 1995). In the UTAUT model, performance expectancy and social influence capture the concepts of the perceived usefulness and subjective norm constructs embodied in C-TAM theory of planned behaviour.
2.7.1.5 Social cognitive theory
Bandura (1977) developed SCT. Compeau and Higgins (1999) developed and modified it for technology use. According to this theory, the main constructs that predict computer use and the use of IT in general are performance outcomes, expectations (job-related performance), personal outcomes, like self-esteem and achievement, self-efficacy (a person’s concept of their own ability), affect (positive attitude to using technology), and
43
anxiety in using technology. In the UTAUT model, performance expectancy takes the concept of the outcome expectations construct represented in SCT.
2.7.1.6 Motivational model
The motivational model consists of extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation considered as explaining and predicting technology use (Davis et al., 1992). Venkatesh et al. (2003) found that extrinsic motivation refers to the degree to which a person perceives that using a particular tchnology will enable him or her to achieve better results, whereas intrinsic motivation means that the person enjoys executing a behaviour because he or she does not have other motivation other than executing the activity him- or herself (for example a user will use a system if he or she perceives that using that system will be enjoyable). In the UTAUT model, performance expectancy captures the concept of the extrinsic motivation construct found in the motivational model (MM).
2.7.1.7 Innovation diffusion theory
The innovation diffusion theory (IDT), has been used to investigate many different innovations in a wide range of organisations (Rogers, 2003) and adapted to investigate individual technology acceptance (Moore & Benbasat, 1991). The constructs of this theory are the relative benefit (of the innovation over traditional practice), ease of use, image (perception of value of the innovation), visibility (commonness of use by peers), compatibility (consistency with values and experiences), results of innovation, and willingness to use (Moore & Benbasat, 1991). In the UTAUT model, performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions capture the concepts of the relative advantage, ease of use, image and compatibility constructs found in IDT.
2.7.1.8 Model of PC utilisation
Thompson, Higgins, and Howell (1991) developed the model of PC utilisation (MPCU) that has been used to predict PC acceptance and use. The MPCU embraces these six constructs: job fit, complexity, long-term consequences, affect towards use, social factors, and facilitating conditions (Thompson et al., 1991). In the UTAUT model, performance
44
expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions capture the concepts of the job fit, complexity, social factors and facilitating conditions constructs embodied in MPCU.