2.3 School categorisation
2.3.3 Tendencies in Africa
The concept of school categorisation in a form of decentralisation has been on the political agenda for well-developed countries in Europe in the belief that it can bring about reforms in service delivery (Machini & Vernoit, 2011). Whilst in most developing countries such as in Africa, the education systems are faced with severe pressures of financial constrains because of poor performance of their economies (Chikoko, 2007). In African countries, education is seen as the major instrument for emancipation from poverty and unemployment, hence there is a rising concern for improved quality of education (Bush & Middlewood, 2005). In 1963 immediately after independence, Kenya took steps to restructure the education system so as to align itself to the aspirations and national needs of the country. The current education system called 8:4:4 was recommended by the Mackay commission in 1981 and implemented by the government of Kenya in 1985 (Republic of Kenya, 1985). Education system 8:4:4 simply means eight years of primary education, four years secondary education and four years for university education (Republic of Kenya, 1985). Even in independent Kenya, the education trend continues where communities established what is called Harambee schools also known as community schools (Sifuna, 1990). These schools were built by the communities and were maintained by the same communities. In terms of providing teachers it was the responsibility of the central government to support these schools. Eventually the government took over the community schools, but the communities continued through the Parents Teachers Associations to raise funds for maintaining and expanding community schools. In 2003 and 2008 the government introduced Free Primary and Secondary Education (Republic of Kenya, 2008). The central government provided infrastructure grants, levy and maintenance grants to target schools. In case of the primary schools these grants are managed
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by the school management committees and for secondary schools the grants are managed by Board of Governors (Ministry of Education, 2007).
A study by Oketch and Ngware (2010) found that Free Primary Education had significantly altered the slum conditions that would make it impossible for the majority of learners in these schools to benefit from this policy failure. These scholars also found that the main reason for this policy failed was that it could not address excess demand for primary education and therefore parents kept moving their children from one school to another school where there are better teachers, more discipline pupils and good quality education. Another findings of the study was that different households and individual attributes motivates decision on the type of school as they are more inclined to choose a public primary school as they are in the lower wealth quintiles. Similar study was conducted in Nairobi by Ngware, Oketch and Ezech (2011) to assess the quality of school inputs in government-owned and non- government-owned schools. The findings of the study showed that learners attending government-owned schools face inequality in accessing child-friendly classrooms because of overcrowding in these schools compared to learners attending non-government schools.
Another finding was that the achievement of Free Primary education is only the provision of textbooks.
While comparing large and small classes Arnold, Gaddy and Dean (2004) argue that in small classes the curriculum is more limited and directed to average learners rather than large classes with full range of learners with varied learning needs. This resonates with the study by Osnat, Berry, Ezeh and Donchin (2008) which found that teachers in government schools are less motivated than teachers in no-government schools because of heavy workload and having to teach large classes. Contrary to these findings is a study by Duflo, Dupas and Kremer (2008) which found that reducing class size from eighty to forty learners without considering other school factors does not lead to a significant increase in learner achievement. A similar finding was reported by Banerjee, Cole, Duflo and Linden (2007) in India where no impact of reducing class size was achieved through the hiring of a remedial education teacher for learners. It can be reasoned that although class size count in schools but if learners are taking their education seriously and be dedicated and teachers dedicate themselves to teaching despite such odds, learners outcome can be achieved.
Some studies in Kenya found that the prefect system is the main structure used in learner participation in decision making in schools, but this is done in a top-down approach not in a
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democratic way by the learners as it is only teachers who handpick learner leaders (Ouma, 2007; Jwan & Ongondo, 2010). Study by Karanja (2010) found that the system of involving learners is the motivating factor of having learner leaders’ participation in the daily running of the school was directly linked to better academic performance and less school strikes.
Furthermore, he found that learners are not the beneficiaries of the school programmes only, but they become the co-interested parties in school culture and able to advance the quality of their school programmes.
Having discussed the education system of Kenya the following section brings the overview of the education system of Nigeria. In Nigeria the management and provision of schools at the primary, secondary and university levels are the responsibility of the government with the Federal government providing funds and also dictating the rules (Ikoya, 2007).
Most African countries like Nigeria have practised traditional types of education in accordance with their different customs, culture, usage and traditions (Sulaiman, 2012). The latter further states that it is not true that education for the indigenous people of Africa was introduced by either the Missionaries or the Muslims. From time of immemorial the indigenous people of Africa had their own education by which their values, norms and cultures were transmitted and transferred to their children (Fafunwa, 1974). This takes me to the schools in Nigeria which are Missionary schools and Koranic schools. Missionary schools came upon various tribes in Nigeria who were speaking a variety of languages. The objective of missionary schools is to carry out evangelical work and the instruction in schools is to read and write which is necessary for understanding of the gospel (Sulaiman, 2012). Missionary schools are compelled to use English as a medium of instruction (Fafunwa, 1974). However missionary schools are lacking in terms of standard and uniform curricula as each missionary body establish schools to suit their specific needs.
A study by Babatunde and Olanrewaju (2014) found that class size and school climate influence significantly the learners’ scholastic achievement in the missionary schools.
Another studies by Osunde and Izevbigie (2006); Ogunyemi (2005); Osunde and Omoruyi (2005) found that poor working conditions as well as community’s negative influence on the education system are fundamental factors influencing the quality of Nigerian teachers and their low status. In the same line of thought is the study by Ikoya and Onoyase (2008) which also points to the inefficient and ineffective management of school facilities by the principals and school managers, as well as lack of commitment to provide efficient management and
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infrastructure. As a result, teachers work in unhealthy and unsafe conditions which lower their morale (Osunde & Izevbigie, 2006).
This type of education system called Koranic schools were established as a means of spreading Islam and converts were made to write and read Islamic poetry, Islamic law, literature and grammar of Islam. In northern Nigeria, Koranic schools are referred to as Makarantar Alo (Umar, 2003). Muslim boys are required by tradition to obtain basic religious literacy through Koranic schools (Qasim, 1991). A study by Jaafar (2006) confirms that most of the boys migrate from rural areas to cities to attend Koranic Schools so as to learn the Islamic culture, master the curriculum and graduate. The medium of instruction and learning in Koranic schools is Arabic and Hausa languages and the Quran is the central text resource in general acquisition of knowledge, expressive writing and language skills, reading while oral recitations are learnt through teacher scaffolding in a sing song manner for the boys to model (Fafunwa, 1974). According to Jaafar (2006) specific song called yar bakara is learnt and used by the boys after school hours to beg for donations from members of the public on the street. Tahir (2006) posits that the boys in Koranic schools are motivated to attend school because of free lunch program that the schools run. He asserts that most of the boys simply abscond school as soon as the lunch is over. Usman’s (2008) study on Koranic schools found that schooling system is challenged by dysfunctional management styles and have little impact on retaining boys in the formal learning setting. Furthermore, teachers and the management lack effective communication forums that will address the fluctuating participation and attendance of the boys. Also teachers assert that their authoritative and positional power through the use of moral value, intimidation and discipline such as corporal punishment to coerce participation, attendance to learning success of the boys as compared to the primary teachers which are lacking. All curriculum process and policies are implemented by the male teachers whom they call Malam who also serves as a role model and in loco parentis (UNICEF, 1998).