2.5. Political participation of women in the global context
2.5.4. The Concept of Gender Equality and Political Participation
Political participation is a broad concept which constitutes a number of political activities some of these have already been captured above. This study is however specific to the notion of political representation and narrowing into this concept is indeed compelling. This pays a particular focus in the representation of women in political institutions of governance where political and policy decisions are taken. To this effect, studies have revealed that even though the
25 interest of women in politics and ultimately their participation has increased, but their presence in parliament for instance, is not on par yet. As it was found in 2001, that only 39 countries have had a woman as the head of state and that women made up slightly over 13% of female parliamentarians worldwide (Norris and Inglehart, 2001).
Morna (2004) acknowledges the political progress that women have achieved over the years as the number of female parliamentarians has been increasing. But she/he adds on that such progress happens at a very slow pace. Therefore, according to this view, achieving a 50/50 gender representation in global parliaments is inconceivable in the near future. There is however countries that have made so much progress that achieving this goal seem realistic. Some of these countries are briefly reviewed below.
2.5.4.1 Selected International cases of women’s political representation
In line with the above definitions of political participation and its cognate concepts, a selected number of international cases of women’s political participation are being reviewed. Throughout the world, calls have been made to extend the fruits of democracy to women by allowing them to participate in political processes. For example, the Millennium Development Goal number three calls for the promotion of gender equality and women empowerment. One of the things that are highlighted within this goal is the promotion of women’s participation in politics. To this effect, progress has been made though the targets have not been achieved. Countries that have made a remarkable progress in this regard are: Rwanda with 56.3% of women’s representation in parliament; Sweden with 45%; South Africa with 44.5% and Cuba with 43.2%. Other countries in which MDGs were implemented either have not make a remarkable progress, or they have not recorded any progress. (Millennium Development Goals Report, 2011:23).
2.5.4.1.1 Rwanda
Rwanda is a reflection of the fact that Sub-Saharan Africa is leading in as far as the political participation of women is concerned. And this remarkable progress is attributed to the use of gender quota system which is a common tool of promoting gender equality in politics throughout the continent (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2003). For the country that is coming from the experience of genocide which took place in 1994, Rwanda’s political progress has been dramatic. It is also interesting that all these political gains are achieved in a country which is not
26 the best of democracies and on top of that. Rwanda is what may be referred to as a quasi- democratic country because her political landscape is dominated by a single political party. This country is coming from far in as far as political development is concerned (Powley, 2005).
Even though Rwanda has made a progress so significant in increasing the participation of women in politics, she still epitomizes the underdeveloped country. The levels of poverty in this country are rife. It is further said that the position of Rwanda as the global leader in terms of women’s political participation and representation, does not in any way reflect the social position of women in Rwanda. The majority of women in Rwanda suffer more victimization under the hands of poverty than their male counterparts. Women are uneducated, do not enjoy fully the legal rights, do not have access to resources and also, they make up huge numbers when it comes to the victims of diseases (Powley, 2005).This means that at the grass root level of the political landscape, the picture is somewhat different. In other words, the parliamentary statistics according to which Rwanda has achieved beyond the gender parity does not reflect the realities of the grass root level and unfortunately, there is not much research that has been done about the level of participation at the grass root level. Despite this, the Rwandan progress is acknowledged so much so that it is dubbed as a model that needs to be followed by other countries in the world (IPU, 2003).
2.5.4.1.2 Sweden
Nordic or Scandinavian countries are reputed as the best democracies in the world and Sweden is one of such countries. Campbell (2010) attests to this by capturing the findings of the Democracy Rankings of 2010 which places Sweden in the top five best democracies in the globe. The other four are: Norway, Finland, Demark (fellow Nordic countries) as well as Switzerland. Off these countries, it is however Sweden that has made a remarkable progress when it comes into the promotion of gender parity in political activities. The MDG rankings by the United Nations (2011) place Sweden on the second spot in this regard.
According to the IDEA (2008), the process of encouraging women to participate in political activities started in the early 1970s when two vanguard political movements (Liberal Party and the Social Democrats) came into the realization that women could play a critical role in the political activities. It is worth noting that then the participation of women judging by their
27 representation in parliament was estimated to be at 14%. From this, it went up into the impressive 45.3% as per the MDG Report of 2011.
IDEA (2008) further states that the 2002 Swedish electoral results saw women occupying over 50% of the parliamentary seats while they scored low in the number of seats they held in the cabinet. The parliament and the cabinet it can be said reflects the realities of the vanguard political movements, some more than others. The climax of the agenda of promoting equal gender political participation happened in 2006 when the political parties unanimously adopted a slogan in their campaigns which said “every second seat for a woman” (IDEA, 2008). This indicated that Sweden intends to maintain its position as the leader when it comes into women’s representation. Gender quota system, is a tool through which the agenda of gender equal participation in politics, is advanced. And this is said to be the case both at the national level (parliament), as well as political party level.
2.5.4.1.3 South Africa
South Africa is coming from the experience of the worst brand of racial discrimination under the cruelty of the apartheid regime. While in general women have been oppressed, for black women this meant triple oppression as they also had been subjected to race and class oppression (Simen, 2006). However, 1994 marked the turning point in this regard. The democracy which was attained in 1994 meant a number of things to women’s struggle. Most important of these is the emphasis on the promotion of gender equality. This was not just given a lip service, but it was also enacted in the constitution as a way of demonstrating the seriousness of the country towards the pursuit of gender equality (Gutto, 2001:151).
The AfriMAP and Open Society Foundation for South Africa published a paper entitled: South Africa: Democracy and Political Participation, in 2006. In this paper, these entities made their contribution towards the reviewing of the progress with respect to political participation that has been made by South Africa. One of the reviews that are made in this paper is that of the trends of women’s political participation. According to this review, the political participation indicated signs of improvement as from the year 2006. This review is based on the outcomes of the local elections of the same year. Whereas the African National Congress (ANC) used the quota system to ensure the increase of the participation and involvement of women in political activities, the
28 Democratic Alliance (DA) did not use the quota system, but it did however ensured that there is a significant presence of women in strategic political positions (AfriMAP and Open Society Foundation for South Africa, 2006).
In light of the above, it therefore comes as a no surprise that, five years later, South Africa was found to be occupying the third place according to the UN Report on the progress of the MDGs with regards to the political participation of women (UN, 2011). However, regardless of this massive achievement, South Africa remains one of the gender unequal societies in the world.
Therefore, it can be deduced that the picture of parliaments in terms of the representation of women is somehow not reflected on the grass root level of politicking and vice-versa. What is also concerning is the lack of the research attention to such a level and that cause the reliance on the parliamentary statistics for points of generalization.
2.5.4.1.4 Cuba
According to the UN’s MDG progress Report, Cuba occupies the fourth spot in as far as the participation and the representation of women in parliament is concerned. For Cuba, the drastic changes with regards to gender equality started to materialize after the Cuban revolution of the 1950. This revolution did not only liberate the Cuban people from the dictatorship of Fulgencio Batista, but it also led to the beginning of the emancipation of women from gender oppression.
Like it is the case in South Africa as stated above, the notion of gender equality is enacted in the form of the number of articles in the Cuban Constitution (Women in Cuba, 2012).
While there is ample literature which points to the fact that progress has been made with respect to the struggle for the emancipation of women so as to ensure the inclusiveness of women in political processes, such literature is not reliable because it is biased against the citizenry at the grass root level. There is therefore a research vacuum at the grass root level that must be entertained by scholars. This will unleash the notion of dealing with problems related to lack of women’s participation in politics, using the bottom up approach.
The UN survey of women in politics ranked this country in the third place when it comes to the political participation of women (UN, 2012). However, these findings are subjected to the same criticism that any finding accounted for in this literature review has been subjected to, that of being limited to parliamentary activities. The danger which comes with using a parliament as the
29 point of measurement is that it might not be reflective of for example the situations of grass root politics. This does not only pose problems for the extent to which such findings can be generalized, but it also cause problems for attempting to establish whether women play a meaningful role even when they are parliamentarians.
This is the picture of how far the world has gone in improving the political status of women. It relevance in the study which is so narrow and based in South Africa like this one, is in so far as it appreciate the fact that South Africa belongs to the global community. Therefore, such a literature so broad is accounted for here to lay the foundation for the analysis of South African contextualized literature. Furthermore, this literature will further be narrowed down to the student governance at institutions of higher learning.
2.6 An overview of South African politics with respect to governance and gender issues