An indigenous approach suggests the need for a variety of research methods. Ithas already been noted that much of career research has developed to fit the modem world-view. The aim of this research has been to access and analyse skills, strengths, interests and values (Collin& Young,
1992). The positivist research methods employed follows logically from the modem view of the self as autonomous and independent of environment, values, culture and gender constraints.
Reflecting on the work of Bernstein(1976), Richardson and Woolfolk(1994) comment on the ideal of mainstream American social science. Historically the social sciences have aimed at achieving law-like correlations that are "both theoretically derived and empirically confirmed"
(p. 205), which, allows for precise prediction in the end. From this perspective human action becomes asocial and ahistorical. Human motives and goals (like those around career choice) develop independently of their social, historical and cultural contexts> Sampson(1989)refers to this as "self-contained individualism" which refers to a "firmly bounded, higWy individuated conception of personhood" (p. 1). There have however been serious doubts voiced, within and without the social science, about "whether the ideal of empirical theory ever has or could be achieved in connection with human activities in their real-life social and historical setting"
(Richardson& Woolfolk, 1994. p.l).
A consequence of the neo-positivist ideology that permeates much of mainstream social science research and practice has resulted in a technocratic approach to real everyday social problems (Peavy, 1997). That is, everyday lived human concerns are reduced to technical issues to be resolved in the same manner as we do with natural science phenomena; rational calculation,
prediction, and control (Mkhize& Frizelle, 2000). The impact of social factors are often (if not always) ignored and as a result career research often fails to give an "adequate explanation of social processes and institutional forces underlying the individual's career choices" (Naicker, 1994, p. 31).
(The impact of social processes and institutional forces are often overlooked in an over reliance on psychological tests which aim to slot individuals into various categories in a rational, efficient and predictable manner. )In advocating an image o~dividualsmaking career choices in a straightforward, systematic and objective way, independent of external and cultural factors, ~ mainstream career theory (as does most of mainstream social science) often hides, or treats as unproblematic, the historical and cultural assumptions and philosophies that form the basis of Western scientific discourse (Much& Harre, 1994). Further, it serves to hide and ignore the fact that certain socio-cultural institutions have been a source of marginalisation and exclusion for many in certain contexts like South Africa. The predominance of Western ideas creates an illusion that there is an objective and universal theory ofthe 'person'. The result is that career researchers/psychologists have failed to recognise the political, moral and ideological
dimensions of career development and counselling (Collin& Young, 1992). In addition, what is further ignored is the fact that psychological tests are themselves social constructs. As a result,
\
the test and its interpretations, serves to communicate societal expectations to the clients in an indirect way (Collin& Young, 1992). These ideas do not take note of the knowledge, skills, and perspectives on life that people share by virtue of being members of different cultures or socio- economic backgrounds.
The call for a more appropriate research method does not suggest a wholesale rejection of quantitative research methods. As Stead and Watson (1998a) argue, "indigenous psychologies do not favour a particular research method and recognise both quantitative and qualitative research methods" (p. 219). The aim is to make use of an appropriate research method that takes adequate cognisance of often ignored social, cultural and institutional influences that underlie an individual's career development. Ithas been suggested that more attention needs to be paid to qualitative research methods in career theory (Stead& Watson, 1998a). There is an
increasing awareness of the potential benefits of employing more interpretivist approaches to career research. Interpretive approaches facilitate a contextualised understanding of career development. From this perspective the researcher is able to achieve an understanding of career in context (Collin& Young, 1992). tead and Watson (1998a) similarly propose, "the
development of theories that reflect a particular contexi is an important part of indigenous psychologies" (p. 219).
2.6 Hermeneutic/interpretivist approaches
The shift to a post-modem world-view has elicited a change in the research paradigm of the social science. There has been a similar shift in career research, where the emergence of approaches like constructionism, narrative and hermeneutics serve to call into question the positivist assumptions of the social science (Collin& Young, 1992).
Collin and Young (1992) have argued for a hermeneutic or interpretive approach toward career development. This approach, which shares many features with social constructionism, "holds that reality is constructed through interactions in relationships, institution, society, culture and history and is represented through language and action" (p. 2). In addition, for hermeneutics, an adequate understanding of human action should take cognisance of the meanings, purposes, and interaction of the actors and their contexts (peavy, 1997). Itis concerned with lived-human experience, rather than technical concerns. Furthermore, it takes into account the historical and psychological realities of the person whose life is being interpreted (Mkhize& Frizelle, 2000).
What the hermeneutic researcher studies, then, "is what people actually do when they are engaged in the everyday practical tasks of life" (Packer, 1985). Packer (1985) describes these practical tasks, or everyday practical activities, asperspectival and holistic in character.
Practical activity asperspectival suggests that human action can have a number of meanings, depending from which perspective it is interpreted. Packer (1985) is quick to note however that this openness to several interpretations does not lead to total subjectivism. The context in which any particular act occurs constrains the number of alternative ways of understanding that act.
Theholistic character of practical activity refers to the context within which human action
occurs and highlights the fact that understanding human action is not possible without understanding the context within which it occurred.
In addition to the cognisance of the context there is also the importance of acknowledging the psychological and historical realities of the interpreter him/herself This is important because
"an interpreter understands by constant reference to her own perspective, preconceptions, biases, and assumptions that rest, fundamentally, on her lifestyle, life experiences, culture, and tradition"
(Tappan, 1997, p. 649). From the hermeneutic perspective, we understand in terms of what we already know, and more importantly, in terms of whom we are (Mkhize& Frizelle, 2000). The aim is to find a way in which the interpreter can understand a subject's action that is based, at least in part, on the subjects own experience. Tappan (1997) goes on to explain that
interpretation involves an essential "circularity of understanding" (p. 651). This circularity builds onto the idea of the hermeneutic circle. Itsuggests that an initial interpretation of a human act is shaped by an interpreters perspective and understanding. Asthis interpretation interacts with the action in question it is open to revision and elaboration as "the perspective and
understanding of the interpreter, including his biases and blind spots, are revealed and evaluated"
(651). From this perspective "the interpreter and the text must share authority and responsibility for shaping the meaning of a given text" (Tappan& Brown, 1992, p. 121).
Cohen and Omery (1994), in their interpretation of Heidegger hermeneutics, define hermeneutics as:
the discovery of meaning that is not immediately manifest to out intuiting, analysing and describing. Interpreters have to go beyond what is given directly. Yet, in attempting this, they have to use the ordinary, everyday given as a clue for meanings that are not given, at least not explicitly". (p. 146)
Using Hiedegger concepts, Cohen and Omery (1994) further describe hermeneutics as an interpretive method that leads the investigator back from the naively conceived beings to the Being itself This 'Being' has a "tendency to fall (or possibly be pushed by human beings in
their angst) into oblivion" (Cohen& Omery, 1994, p. 146). The role of the interpretation process is to take as its starting point everyday experiences and transcend back into, and make apparent, the 'Being'. What is being suggested is that human action (the being) occurs within a background of practices, which are only partially known, to us and that interpretation is required to make these practices (Being) apparent. Foucault (1974) argues that "neither norm, nor rule, nor system is given in daily experience: they run through it, give rise to partial consciousness of themselves, but can never be wholly illumined except by a reflective form of knowledge" (p.
363). Foucault (1974) therefore defines hermeneutics as "the re-apprehension through the manifest meaning of the discourses of another meaning at once secondary and primary, that is, more hidden but also more fundamental" (p. 373). The hermeneutic approach sets out to elucidate and make explicit practical understandings of human action by providing an interpretationof them. Applied to career development, the hermeneutic approach makes it possible to a) understand human action incontextand b) to identify those socio-political, socio- historical and socio-cultural factors that individuals are only partially aware of, but that have an impact on the construction of their identity.
Applied to career research, the above discussion suggests that the aim of hermeneutics would be to understand the complex process of career development in itscontext, and to grasp the
definition of this process as given by the social actors involved (a central aim of this study).
From such a perspective the complex meanings attached to career development will be opened up for exploration. The emphasis is on how people make sense/meaning of their career choices.
.,_...
---- ---
_. --_..The socio-culturally situated nature of hermeneutics makes it possible to explore the issues of power, gender, and other social and political factors that impact on the process of career development (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000). Furthermore, the hermeneutic approach higWights the
- - .
__
.-need for career researchers to acknowledge that interpretation is arelational activity. The interpretation/understanding of peoples' career experiences will be influenced by the
---_..- - -.__._--~--~_._. -~-~ _.-..--- ._- .. ~ --- ._. .. - - -~._-- - - '
interpreter's own standpoint and perspective. She or he must therefore be aware of, and acknowledge,-the
~~ ~-~hichh;;
or hisassu~ptions,
values and biases shape and inform an understanding of career experiences•./Tappan and Brown (1992) refer to this process as an "ethic of interpretation based on care and responsiveness"(p. 125).Collin and Young (1992) argue thatit is.Qnly through interpreting career stories that researchers willbe able to achieve an understanding of career in context. Career research needs to explore the "dialectic between individuals and their context in this constructive process, and it can only be achieved fhfough interpretation"(p. 2).-The current study demonstrates how an
understanding and practice of interpretation are two key elements in understanding careers.
2.7 The narrative research paradigm
Collin and Young (1992) regard careers as having to do with human action and argue that our access to it for hermeneutical study is through its expression in narrative. Narrative is the primary vehicle through which persons make sense of their history. An understanding of careers therefore comes from an understanding/interpretation of the stories that people tell about their career experiences. They go on to describe the socially constructed nature of the narrative:
Itis built from history, culture, society, relationships and language. Itembodies context, although individuals are not likely fully aware of how context is manifest in their narratives or in the actions on which they are based. But we become aware of context through narrative. (p. 8)
A narrator's story is embedded in her or his culture, language, gender, beliefs and life history.
Peacock and Holland (1993) discuss the importance oflife stories in self-formation and self- expression. Currie (1998) argues that culture not only contains narratives but is contained by narratives "in the sense that the idea of culture, either in general or in particular, is a narrative"
(p. 69). Narratives are, in effect, social constructions (Gergen& Gergen, 1988).
Laubsecher and Klinger (1997) describe narratives of the self as being populated with images that are collected through one's engagement with family and culture. They suggest that such images give insight into the circumstances and culture of particular groups. For example many Black South Africans share images of forced removals and migrant labour laws. A narrative allows insight into the circumstances and experiences that might otherwise have remained
foreign to those that have experienced differing circumstances. Events become socially visible through narrative (Gergen& Gergen, 1988). This suggests that career narratives can provide an opportunity to explore the complex and dynamic interaction ofthe individual and their context as suggested by a number of career researchers who recognise the impact of contextual factors on career development (Naicker, 1994; Stead, 1996; Vondraceket al. , 1986).
The narrative, as a post-modem research method, challenges the modem world-view of people acting as singular selves. Gergen and Gergen (1988) explain how people are often described as having motives, beliefs, understandings and plans as if these were properties of an autonomous, independent self When people express these beliefs and motives in the form of a story, it is easy to make the mistake of viewing such a construction as a product of an independent self because the object of a self-narrativeis the single self Gergen and Gergen (1988) challenge this
conception of narratives by arguing that in the reliance on a language system for relating or connecting events, people constructing narratives are engaging in an inherentlysocial act.
Narratives are "not isolated from daily affairs; they are immersed within processes of ongoing interchange" (p. 37). An actor's ability to make her or himself intelligible through narratives is embedded within a socio-historical context. That is, in telling a story one has to rely on certain features of a pre-existing social order. Culture thus speaks through the actor. From this perspective, what we label as individualized characteristics are actually primarily products of joint configurations (Gergen& Gergen, 1988). Applied to career research, this understanding of
narratives suggests that the narrative is anappropriate method in the development of a more indigenous approach, as it makes it possible to explore what it means to be a person, occupying a particular positioninsociety, with particular motives and goals
Inaddition Gergen and Gergen's (1988) notion ofmultiplicity in narrative is useful when applied to career research. It is common practice to see each individual as possessinga Singlelife story, yet it appears that people are capable of adopting multiple perspectives: "Common experience in the culture will typically offer the individual exposure to a wide variety of narrative forms, from the rudimentary to the complex" (p. 33). Gergen and Gergen refer to these multiple perspectives as"nested narrativeS" (p. 34). There is no unitary, fixed narrative, but rather a negotiation
between existing narratives and the development of new narratives. Thus, a narrative is never fixed or static, nor is there a unidirectional and predictable relationship between individuals and cultural meanings. Rather, these are subject to continued negotiation and renegotiation over time (Mkhize & Frizelle, 2000).
Gergen and Gergen (1988) propose that those people with an extensive background in the history of their culture are likely to possess a more coherent and continuous narrative. However, those people from a young culture or nation may have much less coherent or continuous narratives,
"the former may experience a lesser degree of strain to behave in a way that is coherent with the past" (p. 35). Ithas already been noted that South Africa is undergoing rapid social and political changes, which is likely to impact on the career development ofBlack South Africans. The increased contact between different cultures and world-views, as well as the opening up of more possibilities and opportunities for Black South Africans, suggest the potential for using a wide variety of guiding narratives as they negotiate their career experiences. By recognising the
potential for nested narratives, it becomes possible for career researchers to explore the impact of a range of social and political constants/changes on the career development ofBlack South Africans.
The work ofRicouer (1979) is also relevant to career research. He demonstrates the possibility of researching expressed human phenomena, without resorting to positivist research methods.
He accomplished this by drawing analogies between texts and human action. Human action becomes a text that can be interpreted. Conceptualising human action as a text makes it possible for us to study human phenomena in a meaningful way, provided they have been captured or recorded in some form. Narratives or the stories that people tell about their lives capture meaningful action, making it open for exploration and interpretation (Mkhize& Frizelle, 2000).
The above discussion suggests thatifwe want to study the process of career development, "we need to listen to people's narratives and interpret them both in terms of what they know and understand of themselves, and their context, and what they many not necessarily know or understand, but can be brought into play be the researcher" (Collin& Young, 1992, p. 9). This study illustrates how narratives place career development within a larger context. It
demonstrates how narratives become a means of exploring the impact of a number of factors, such as culture, issues of power and gender on career development, which is necessary for the development of an indigenous careers approach.
Itis suggested that a number of contextual factors impact significantly on individuals' career development. For the purposes of discussion these factors will be discussed separately in the literature review. However, it should be noted that the interpretation and discussion section of this study will demonstrate that these contextual factors are intertwined, for example gender and culture are two inextricable factors that can only be separated for the purposes of discussion.
2.8 Understanding career development as gendered
The work of Labouvie-Vief, Orwoll and Manion (1995) reflects on the informal ideas of gender that exist within many cultures. These ideas have lead to a polarisation of human functioning, like the polarisation of concepts like 'masculine' and feminine'. This dualistic myth is integral to informal ideas of development in many cultures where women's biological role as bearer and nurturer of children is said to tie her to earth's activities, while men, as bearers of culture, are seen to be involved in the creation of symbols and artefacts. As a result "the core masculine experience is that of enhancing one's sense of being a causal agent in one's success, the core feminine experience is that of surrendering such claims" (p. 243-244). Despite changes in education and the labour market profound differences remain inho~.2 for example, men and women subjectively experience their success. Labouvie-Vief et al. 's (1995) review of relevant research suggests that the gendering of intellectual activity has implications for how the
individual is able to integrate intellectuality and creativity into their sense of developing self For example, girls are said to renounce and subvert their agency and desire to relational needs quite early in life, while boys are encouraged to strive for and claim accomplishments as their~ .
~. Contemporary research findings showed that "by early adolescents, gifted girls had ambitious career aspirations, but by late adolescence, this ambition had given away to confusion and denial" (p. 245). The findings go so far as to suggest that for boys poor academic
performance can be associated with emotional problems, while higher academic performance predicts emotional problems in girls. These findings seem to support the traditional view that