3.2.1 The biopsychosocial model of disability
Previously the medical model, which saw disability as an impairment or disease to be prevented and/or treated, shaped policies and legislation.
“Disability was seen as the problem of the person which was directly caused by some disease, trauma or any other health condition, which requires medical care provided in the form of individual treatment by professionals” (World Health Organisation, 2001, p. 20). Disability was seen as something to be ‘cured’. The medical model saw the cause of disability as being within the individual. Curing the disability or the individual’s adjustment and change in behaviour was seen as managing the disability. The main aim was to cure the individual or provide a system of care. The medical professionals decided on the treatment and the disabled person was merely the passive recipient of the treatment. Correct medical care was of paramount importance and at the political level the main focus was on modifying or changing the health care policy. The focus on the medical model was “on modifying the person, assuming that any difficulties lie in the individual’s deviation from
“normal”, rather than in the lack of accommodation within the environment”
(Finkelstein, 1991 as cited in Quinn, 1998, p.X1X ). There were no attempts to accommodate the individual in society. People with disabilities were institutionalised and were isolated from the rest of society. Ustun (2002) mentions that people with disabilities were not even considered as being able to make a contribution to the labour market but seen as a burden to the economy.
For the past 20 years the social model has had an impact on shaping legislation and policies as stated by Dube (2005). This model emerged largely from the disability movement, beginning in the United Kingdom in the 1970s, and from research conducted by people with disabilities (Swain, Finkelstein, French and Oliver, 1993 as stated in Quinn, 1998). The social model maintains that, even though a person with
a disability may function differently from some other people, the problems the person encounters do not result entirely from the nature of the impairment (Quinn, 1993 as stated in Quinn, 1998). As the person who has a disability recognises and acknowledges the numerous barriers erected by society, feelings of depression, passivity, or hopelessness may emerge, and these may be interpreted by outsiders as a lack of motivation and adjustment (Quinn, 1998). According to the social model disability is the result of society’s attitude and obstacles in the man-made environment. Disability is located outside the individual and is seen to be the result of a disabling and oppressive environment. Society is seen as disabling people. The environment is seen as responsible for erecting barriers that prevent people with disabilities from participating in all spheres of life. In order for people with disabilities to be equal participants in society then all societal barriers must be removed.
According to Disability Net, United Kingdom (1997) it is mentioned that the social model perceives a person as disabled if the world at large does not take into consideration his or her physical or mental differences. The International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (World Health Organisation, 2001, p.20) says that the social model of disability does not view disability as an attribute of an individual but as a complex collection of conditions, many of which are created by the social environment.
Those working within the social model regard work as an important aspect. There are many people with disabilities that would want to work but cannot do so due to barriers in the infrastructure thus making places of employment inaccessible. Seirlis and Swartz (2006) mention that not only structural barriers but also attitudinal barriers exist to disabled people finding employment. From my readings (Fasset, 2008; Edmonds, 2005; Briggs, 2005) I also found that the negative attitude of employers contribute to disabled people not being successful in obtaining jobs. Even when they are employed they are paid a lower salary than other able-bodied people.
They are not given opportunities for skills training because employers don’t see them as making a valuable contribution to the labour market. Greater opportunities are given to employees without disabilities. They are also sidelined when it comes to promotion. Disabled people are still under-represented in the work force. A study conducted by Global Business Solutions (Department of Labour, 2001) found that less than 1 percent of the total workforce in South Africa is reported as people with
disabilities. Should the infrastructure be modified to accommodate disabled people they would be as functional as any one else and would be able to contribute to the societies to which they belong.
More recently there has been a paradigm shift in the way health and disability is viewed. The previous two models ignored the relation among the biological, social and psychological factors associated with disability. Hence, we have the emergence of the biopsychosocial approach which provides a coherent and holistic view of different perspectives of health viz. biological, individual and social. The International Classification Framework (ICF) is based on the biopsychosocial model of functioning and disability. According to this model functioning and disability are multi- dimensional phenomena experienced at the level of the body, the person and society (Ustun, 2002). The biopsychosocial model is seen as a combination of individual, biological and social perspectives. It focuses on functioning at the level of the whole person in a social context. Accessing Safety Initiative Understanding Disability (2006, npn ) states that “One is more or less disabled based on whether the physical, information, communication and social and policy environments are accommodating and welcoming of variation in ability.” According to the ICF, disability is seen as lying on a continuum and disability is viewed as an outcome of interaction between health conditions, external environmental factors and internal personal factors. In my research I am going to use the biopsychosocial model in understanding disability whereby disability is best understood in terms of a combination of biological, psychological and social factors. The biopsychosocial model of disability will help me understand and make sense of the data that I collect from my respondents in terms of how disability is viewed.
3.2.2 The concept of self-determination
As a second conceptual lens, I use the notion of self-determination. The issue of self- determination and its effects within the biopsychosocial model will be looked at.
Powers, Sowers, Turner, Nesbitt, Knowles & Ellison (1996, p.292 as cited in Wehmeyer and Bolding, 2001) define self-determination as referring to “personal attitudes and abilities that facilitate an individual’s identification and pursuit of goals”.
Self-determination reduces learned helplessness and promotes motivation and self- efficacy. The learned helplessness is reinforced by environmental factors that
encourage passivity. Self-determination is when a person takes charge of his life and makes decisions regarding his life. The choices that he makes are free from external influences. Self-determined individuals are those that bring about a change in their own lives. Wehmeyer (2001) asserts that self-determination entails controlling one’s life and one’s fate. Deci and Ryan (1985 as cited in Wehmeyer, 2001) see self- determination as more than a capacity, instead it is also perceived of as a need.
The prevalent assumption is that people with intellectual disabilities cannot or do not become self-determined individuals. However, Wehmeyer and Bolding (2001) believe that, by addressing issues pertaining to environment and opportunity, and if adequate supports and accommodations are provided, people with intellectual disabilities can enhance their self-determination and assume greater control of their lives. Self determination empowers people. It is imperative in obtaining respect and dignity and essential in seeing oneself as worthy and important; therefore people with disabilities constantly want to take control over their lives. Achieving self-determination is never easy for a disabled person. The issue of self-determination and its effects is relevant in my study to understanding the perceptions of the intellectually disabled and whether they were able to overcome adversities and take charge of their lives. Also self-determination could result in them being intrinsically motivated to make changes in their lives by acquiring skills and wanting to seek employment.
3.2.3 Multiple intelligences
Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences will form my third conceptual lens (Gardner, 1993). The traditional view of intelligence only focussed on computational and verbal aspects which can be measured using intelligence tests but in 1983 Gardner proposed a new view of intelligence known as the theory of multiple intelligence. This new concept of intelligence included areas such as music, spatial relations and interpersonal knowledge in addition to mathematical and linguistic ability. Gardner defines intelligence as “the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more cultural setting” (Gardner & Hatch, 1989 as cited in Brualdi, 1996, p. 2). The eight intelligences that Gardner defines are logical-mathematical intelligence; linguistic intelligence; spatial intelligence; musical intelligence; body- kinaesthetic intelligence; the personal intelligences (comprising of interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences) and naturalist intelligence. Gardner maintains that these
intelligences rarely operate independently; rather they are used concurrently and complement each other as people develop skills or solve problems. Gardner’s body- kinaesthetic intelligence is relevant to my study. The service users in my study do not excel in verbal and mathematical intelligence but excel in body-kinaesthetic intelligence.