INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW
2.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
psychological climate. At this level, the concept of climate refers to the individual perceptions of behaviours. When aggregated, the concept is called organisational climate.
These are the objectively shared perceptions that characterise life in the organisation (Isaksen et.al 2001).
Organisational climate is described as a phenomenon between employees and the organisational situation. Factors in the organisational climate such as bureaucracy, procedures, rules, policies, monotonous work and physical environment elicit reactions in the individuals involved. Ekvall (1991) indicates that it is these reactions in the form of behaviour, feelings, and attitudes that constitute the climate in the realistic sense. But we also have to count the people themselves as part of the organisational situation.
Phenomenologically speaking, it is the individual's apperceptions of these conditions, factors and events in the organisation that constitute the climate. It is their way of assigning meaning to procedures, policies, and events that come to constitute the climate.
A study by Ekvall (1987 cited in Isaksen & Kaufmann 1990) shows that organisational climate can be understood according to objectivistic or subjectivistic viewpoints. The objectivistic views climate through behaviours, attitudes and feelings and sees the climate as existing independently as a part of organisational reality. The subjectivistic view regards climate as a perceptual and cognitive structuring common to those who comprise the organisation.
Figure 2.3 Four Ps of Creativity
A description and understanding of the interrelationship between the four Ps within the context of this study will follow in this section. Recent creative studies, examined empirically, focused on the relationship of press (i.e. environment, situation, culture, or climate) to the concept of creativity.
Regardless of whether creativity is considered to be a process or an outcome, it is ultimately linked to social processes and contexts and can be considered from a systems perspective (Csikszentmihalyi 1988).
The nature of this type of research focuses on the concept of creative climate in the workplace. Since the creativity component of press is receiving empirical scrutiny in recent years, this study will concentrate on creative climates in the work environment and will use the dimensions of the climate assessment instruments of Amabile and Ekvall. The objective
of this section is to respond to the research questions, gaining a well-grounded understanding of the nature of the research topic and its related literature to establish findings and discussions in the subsequent chapters of this study.
Creative persons
This strand looks at factors within people that influence their creativity. Research suggests that individuals with creative personalities exhibit higher creativity than those with less creative personalities (Politis 1996 cited in Feist 1999). While there is generally current debate as to whether creativity is for the selected few or for everyone and while certain people are more creative on their own accord than others, creativity can be stimulated and supported through training, and by creating the right work environment and atmosphere.
Creativity cannot be methodical - it relies much more on intrinsic motivation; on people being enthusiastic, inspired and knowledgeable. According to the intrinsic motivation principle of creativity, people will be most creative when they are motivated primarily by the interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, and challenge of work itself (Amabile 2001).
Warner (n.d.) believes that truly creative people are intensely career-oriented and devote enormous amounts of energy to their work. They pay particular attention to the intrinsic satisfaction in their work and look for interesting, stimulating, challenging creative projects.
Money, it turns out, does not foster creativity; Amabile found that people doing creative, innovative work do not focus daily on salary or a potential bonus (Potier 2005). However, according to Amabile & Gryskiewicz (1987) there are factors (i.e. internal political problems, conservatism and rigid formal structures) that could impede creativity amongst individuals.
From the perspective of this study, current views point out that managerial style is important in the workplace. The manager must be willing to practice "flexible-inflexible" management style. Managers generally manage creative tasks by providing goals and objectives that usually link to performance. In addition, the literature revealed that it is also expected of all managers to control resources through budget allocation, deadlines, competitive pressures, company reputation and market demands. Thus the manager of creativity needs to link creative practices with the business goals of the organisation. According to Kao (1989) he or she must know when to melt into the background, and when to push; when to leave expectations ambiguous, and when to clarify them. These skills involve the development of creative management rather than the memorisation of rules and regulations.
Creative processes
This strand looks at methods, steps and techniques that individuals use when applying their creativity. Creative processes suggest imaginative thinking, which is expansive in nature, as opposed to evaluative thinking, which is convergent in character (Henry 1991). There are many models for the process of creative thinking and all of them evidently show a consistent theme. The following creative-solving model further elaborates other concepts of creative processes.
Moorhead & Griffin (2004) illustrate four useful steps in the creative process. This early model is the basis for most of the creative thinking processes available today.
1. Preparation 2. Incubation 3. Illumination 4. Verification
Preparation is the first step in which education and training of creative people never ends. It involves gaining the necessary skills and knowledge and trying to find the right answers by addressing the problem from different perspectives. Creative problem-solving often involves reframing the problem from a number of angles, with the aim of reaching some kind of problem-statement that encapsulates the nub of the issue to be addressed (Henry 1991).
The next step is the incubation period of less intense conscious concentration. Here, the creative person allows the knowledge and ideas emanated from the previous stage to mature
and develop. Ideas are pooled by a group of people through brainstorming techniques and other analytical procedures. In this stage mind maps are created to classify ideas and place them into categories.
In the third step, insight is a breakthrough of new understanding of the problem in which the creative person synchronizes thoughts and ideas maturing during the incubation stage. This is the expansive phase where the question-context is considered, and account is taken of the people, resources, policy, climate, etc., that will support the idea, and those factors that are likely to hinder its implementation (Henry 1991).
The final step of the creative process is verification or implementation that determines the validity or truthfulness of the insight. The notion that creative and analytical thinking are complementary in this model, rather than opposing and that creative thinking is a subconscious mental process that cannot be directed would inform this study.
Although there are many creative models for fostering the process of current creative thinking, it is clear that a consistent unifying idea extends throughout the models. The older models advocate that generation of creative ideas emanate outside the control of the individual thinker whilst modern models advocate conscious generation of ideas that is controlled by the individual thinker. Hence the modern theory of creativity supports the creative process that involves purposeful analysis, imaginative idea generation, and critical evaluation - the total creative process is a balance of imagination and analysis (Plsek 1996).
Product
This strand would focus on creative outcomes that may be both tangible and intangible (knowledge, attitudes, behavioural patterns). While there is no known prescription for stimulating an effective work environment, there are desired actions that can be taken to enhance the creative climate, increase employee skills, and establish processes and procedures that support creative thinking. To enrich this study the researcher will discuss creative influences as the creative outcome that may be concrete or "touchable" like an invention or marketable product or personal development, the development of a new service or improvement to an existing one or social technology (Grivas 1996).
The following creative influences are:
Albert Einstein
As a German theoretical physicist, Einstein regarded intuition as the highest form of knowing and regarded it as timeless. Einstein is viewed as the greatest scientist of the 20l century and was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for Physics. Yet his interest in science and, presumably, his creativity, were undermined by forces that exerted external control over his work (Amabile 1996). The headmaster once told Einstein's father that it wouldn't matter what Einstein chose as a profession, because "he'll never make a success at anything". On the contrary, Albert Einstein was unfathomably profound - the genius among geniuses who discovered, merely by thinking about it, that the universe was not as it seemed (Golden 2000). This earned him global recognition for his theory of relativity and the contributions he made to the development of quantum mechanics, cosmology and statistical mechanics.
Albert Einstein according to Bronte (n.d.:4):
At the age of five, his father showed him a pocket compass, and Einstein realized that something in "empty" space acted upon the needle; he would later describe the experiences as one of the most revelatory of his life. Though he built models and mechanical devices for fun, he was considered a slow learner, possibly due to dyslexia, simple shyness, or the significantly rare and unusual structure of his brain (examined after his death). He later credited his development of the theory of relativity to this slowness, saying that by pondering space and time later than most children, he was able to apply a more developed intellect.
Malcolm McLean
Malcolm McLean in the mid-1950s created the concept of containerised shipping. The idea later evolved as the basis of the Sea-Land Company which became the first shipping company to ship goods in containers. The break-through idea was generated when McLean imagined that it was not sensible to package goods into crates that had to later be unloaded from a truck at the dockside and loaded aboard a ship. He thought that this process could be eliminated if the entire truck-container was put on the ship. In this way the handling costs would decrease considerably and there would be less breakage and theft. McLean's thinking was creative. It enabled his company to take off and prosper. This sort of creativity is necessary for any company that wants to experience significant growth from its new-product development activities, especially if it intends to accomplish anything other than develop 'me-to' products (Himmelfarb 1999).
General Electric
As CEO of General Electric, Jack Welch made this company one of America's most admired and profitable. "Neutron Jack", as he became known because of his early decision to downsize 100 000 people, had a build-and-rebuild style with people, assets and strategies (Chowdhury 2002). And, because he practiced a constant build-and-rebuild cycle instead of a build-and-maintain cycle, Jack Welch became the company's most admired and successful CEO for the resultant transformation. He was able to consistently deliver profits for 20 years.
Apple Computer
Customers embraced Apple computers when the mouse was introduced. This mouse was developed at Xerox, however, when it was first commercially implemented on the Apple Lisa, it failed. It was not until the Mac was released that the mouse succeeded. Although Apple computers did very well for several years, in the late 1990s sales dropped and the stock price plunged rapidly. In order to get back into the market, the company brought back the creativity of Steve Jobs who had first made it successful. He introduced new colours to Apple computers with which, according to Chowdhury (2002), consumers fell in love.
Within a year Apple's stock quadrupled. The innovation wasn't revolutionary from a technology perspective, but excited customers perceived evolutionary innovation as revolutionary.
Sony
Sony is a company devoted to the CELEBRATION of life. We create things for every kind of IMAGINATION. Products that stimulate the SENSES and refresh the spirit.
Ideas that always surprise and never disappoint. INNOVATIONS that are easy to love, and EFFORTLESS to use, things that are essential, yet hard to live without. We are not here to be logical. Or predictable. We're here to pursue INFINITE possibilities. We allow the BRIGHTEST minds to interact freely, so the UNEXPECTED can emerge. We invite new THINKING so even more fantastic ideas can evolve. CREATIVITY is our essence. We take chances. We EXCEED expectations. We help dreamers DREAM (Sony South Africa 2005).
Sony is a $60 billion global organisation which was founded in 1946 by Masaru Ibuka and Aki Morita. The name of the company was created by combining two words, 'sonus' and 'sonny'. The former, in Latin, means 'sound' and 'sonic' and the latter means 'little son'.
The words were used to describe Sony as a very small group of young people who have the energy and passion toward unlimited creation. According to Sony South Africa (2005:3):
Ibuka was a practical visionary who could foretell what products and technologies could be applied to everyday life. He inspired in his engineers a spirit of innovation and pushed them to reach beyond their own expectations. Ibuka also fostered an exciting working atmosphere and an open-minded corporate culture. In the founding prospectus, he wrote of his wish to build a company whose employees gained satisfaction and pleasure from their work and his desire to create a fun, dynamic workplace.
Sony has since been at the cutting edge of technology throughout history and has captured the imagination and enhanced people's lives. The following products have made Sony the leader in innovation: the first magnetic tape and tape recorder in 1950; the transistor radio in 1955; the world's first all-transistor TV set in 1960; the Compact Disc (CD) in 1982; the first 8mm camcorder in 1985; the MiniDisc (MD) player in 1992; the PlayStation game system in 1995; Digital Mavica camera in 1997; Digital Versatile Disc (DVD) player in 1998; and the Network Walkman digital music player in 1990.
As a result, Sony has captivated the minds of the consumers as the provider of the world's greatest brands. The company has always enjoyed brand equity that is rooted in product innovations.
When remarking about the importance of the Sony brand name, consider this quote from the Chairman of the Board, Norio Ohga: " In April of every year a large number of new employees join the company. And what I always say to them is that we have many marvelous assets here. The most valuable asset of all is the four letters, S, O, N, and Y. I tell them, make sure the basis of your actions is increasing the value of these four letters. In other words, when you consider doing something, you must consider whether your action will increase the value of SONY, or lower its value (Sony South Africa 2005:4).
In order to ensure the company continues to promote a world-class brand, Sony in the US recently embarked on an extensive company-wide programme aimed at fostering a common understanding of the Sony brand among staff (employees), consumers and customers.
The examples above clearly indicate that the work climate is of primary importance if creativity is to be nurtured and maximised. There are some climates that promote a challenging, supportive and caring spirit, which is a fundamental stimulant to the creative process. The creative self is influenced by the climate, which is therefore responsible for the development and maximisation of creativity, and the launching of initiative processes. Even suppressed personalities may thrive in an atmosphere of freedom and institutional support.
The essential criterion for the work climate is that it must be provocative. Leaders, mentors, facilitators, entrepreneurs and even children play an important role by educating people as to what creativity entails and showing that creativity is within the grasp of everybody (Sony South Africa 2005).
Furthermore Amabile (1996) believes that intrinsic motivation is conductive to creativity, but extrinsic motivation is detrimental. When individuals need to embark on any creative activity for themselves, they appear to be more creative because of their self-interest and the enjoyment the creative process brings. However, the same level of creativity does not exist when individuals are primarily motivated by goals imposed on them by others. Although the intrinsic and extrinsic motivation principle is still crucial in the theory of creativity, the researcher has focused more attention on other aspects of social influence on creativity.
Press - Assessing Creative Environments
This strand underlies all the above strands and it is the place where creativity occurs. The strands of press, person and product interrelate with each other in the workplace environment.
Factors contributing to this particular strand are creativity, climate, and systems, among others. The purpose of this section is to use the work of Amabile's KEYS instrument and Ekvall's Creative Climate Questionnaire to aid in identifying components of Press. Hence, the two models were used and are similar in many ways.
In her research Harvard Business School Professor Amabile (1996) drew on literature of creativity and developed an instrument (KEYS) that assesses the dimensions of the work environment that stimulated or impeded creativity. KEYS assesses the climate for creativity and innovation that exists within a work group, division or organisation. The KEYS scale is a survey and consists of 78 questions and can be completed in only 20 minutes, the researcher in this study used only the dimensions and formulated an interview schedule so that participants could be interviewed for about two hours. In this way in-depth views/opinions were valued and gathered.
KEYS assess six management practices that support the work environment and two management practices that inhibit the work environment. The following dimensions used in
his study, to collect data during interviews were fully acknowledged from Amabile (1996:
233),
KEYS SCALES and are defined as follows:
Assessing Environmental Stimulants to Creativity
Organisational encouragement and support: an organisational culture that encourages creativity through the fair, constructive judgment of ideas, reward and recognition for creative work, mechanisms for developing new ideas, and active flow of ideas, and a shared vision of what the organisation is trying to do. Sample item: "People are encouraged to solve problems creatively in this organisation."
Supervisory encouragement: A supervisor, who serves as a good work model, sets goals appropriately, supports the work group, values individual contributions, and shows confidence in the work group. Sample item: "My supervisor serves as a good work model."
Work group supports: a diversely skilled work group in which people communicate well, are open to new ideas, constructively challenge each other's work, trust and help each other, and feel committed to the work they are doing. Sample item: "There is free and open communication between my work group."
Freedom: freedom in deciding what work to do or how to do it; a sense of control over one's work. Sample item: " I have the freedom to decide how I am going to carry out my projects."
Sufficient Resources: access to appropriate resources, including funds, materials, facilities, and information. Sample item: "Generally, I can get the resources I need for my work."
Challenging Work: a sense of having to work hard on challenging tasks and important projects. Sample item: "I feel challenged by the work I am currently doing."
Assessing Environmental Obstacles to Creativity:
Organisational Impediments: an organisational culture that impedes creativity through internal political problems, harsh criticism of new ideas, destructive internal competition, an avoidance of risk, and an overemphasis of the status quo. Sample item: "There are many political problems in this organisation."
Workload Pressure: extreme time pressures, unrealistic expectations for productivity, and distractions from creative work. Sample item: "I have too much to do in too little time."