33 Chikovore, Makusha, Muzvidziwa & Richter (2012) argue that different games that learners in early childhood in South Africa play have a meaning attached, for example, a pit and pebble game commonly played by little girls in South Africa. This game, which frequently involves a friendly rivalry between players, is often played during times of the day at school or home. It promotes interaction and learners also gain mathematically related concepts, such as counting and sequencing (Chikovore et al., 2012). Learners’ understanding of language is enhanced by play (Lidelli & Masilela, 1992).
From the review of related literature, it would be realise that play as a teaching strategy is relevant and important for both the holistic and cognitive development of children irrespective of their social and economic background. Both national and international literatures were sort of to this regard. The next section within this chapter deals with the theoretical framework for the study. The inclusion of the theoretical framework in this chapter is a deliberate attempt to relate the relevance of the theoretical framework with the review of related literature.
34 Constructivist theory considers individual learning as well as developmental differences to create a well-rounded approach to learning and teaching. In his theory, Vygotsky argues that children are active participants who can build their own knowledge and understanding (Excell &
Linington, 2015, p 28). Children learn through interactions that they have in class among themselves and also with the teacher (Vygotsky, 1978).
Vygotsky’s theory maintains a view that learners get support from an expert adult in order to do a task which may be difficult for them. When a child gets assistance to learn a concept that he/she would not have learnt without an adult’s assistance, that is what Vygotsky called the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Learners in Grade R are supported by a teacher when they encounter problems during play. They sometimes struggle with completing a task because of certain learning barriers.
2.8.1 The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and learning through play
Vygotsky (1978) asserts that learning occurs in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which is described as those functions that have not yet matured in a child but are in the process of maturation. It represents the difference between what the child actually knows and what the child can learn with the assistance of a more knowledgeable other.
In his perspective on learning, Vygotsky argues that play forms the fundamental activity for development and learning and it provides opportunities for joint activity, social interaction, the use of language and problem solving skills (Brock, et al., 2009). Furthermore, Vygotsky states that the child needs someone who will plan and guide learning. The ZPD is core in the theory of Vygotsky because that is where learning takes place. The researcher therefore recognises the work of Vygotsky as being suitable for this study since play in the school is an approach for teaching and learning in Grade R.
Learners interact extensively and use their thinking skills to solve problems. Roussou (2004) argues that Vygotsky’s social constructivism is adopted as the basic driving force in the development of highly interactive and participatory environments, where the user is able to
35 modify, build, appropriate elements, test ideas, and actively engage in problem-solving and critical thinking.
Maximum learning occurs when learners interact, play and cooperate with the environment, materials (toys) and with others (peers and adults) (Wood & Attfield, 2005). Learners will be learning as they engage in social interactions during play time. Roussou (2004) asserts that play can unite imagination and intellect in more than one way, and help learners interact fully and to discover things at their own pace and in their own way. Undoubtedly, play is a child’s favourite activity and it occurs in an environment where there will be a teacher to assist the child.
Vygotsky’s theoretical framework, incorporating the notion of ZDP, challenges the effectiveness of a free-play curriculum, and suggests that adults need to take an active role in encouraging learning through play (Vygotsky, 1978). However, this does not imply formal academic teaching but to understand learning as a form of partnership between learners and adults, between peers and in the context of real-life everyday situations.
Trawich-Smith & Dziurgot (2011) proclaim that a situation in which adults can most effectively enhance play is when learners are in Vygotsky’s ZPD - a time when learners can play independently, with just a little indirect guidance from an adult. A teacher can help a child in ZPD by asking a question, giving a hint, or a subtle prompt. That will make the child figure out the concept because of clues which come from the teacher. Trawick-Smith (2010) asserts that most learning and development occur in the ZPD. In the Grade R classroom, teachers can offer slight guidance such as asking learners interesting questions, giving hints, or encouragements that assist learners in solving play problems independently.
Play represents a specialised form of the ZPD (John-Steiner, Connery & Marjanovic-Shane, 2010). Holzman (2010) argues that without creating ZPDs, there is no creativity. Learners play during learning time. When they are faced with a challenge, an adult gives a hint and that will enable learners to be creative and original because they do not completely rely on the teacher to learn. Thus, the ZPD is important in Vygotsky’s rejection of the popular belief that learning only takes place by using traditional teaching methods which do not feature play at all (Holzman,
36 2010). To Vygotsky, play and development complement each other with young learners (Miller, 2011).
Vygotsky (1978) argues that play has a fundamental role in learners’ development therefore the teacher has a crucial role to play in developing learners’ abilities. Wood & Bennett, (1998) contend that Vygotsky’s thoughts on development are that a complex dynamic relationship exists between development and learning where learning guides and stimulates development, and that development is dependent on the social learning environment. In his socio-cultural theory of learning, play, like all other psychological functions, is social in origin, is mediated by language and is learned with other people (peers and adults) in social contexts (Wood & Bennett, 1998).
Vygotsky believed that all forms of play have imaginary elements and are inherently rule bound.
The developmental course of play is characterised by the changing relationships between imaginary situations and rules which are sometimes implicit and sometimes explicitly negotiated before or during the development of a play sequence (Wood & Bennett, 1998). Despite the criticisms against the constructivist approach, one would argue that the philosophy social constructivism underpinning this approach, when applied correctly, would enrich teachers’
engagement in play as a teaching strategy in Grade R.
In summary, Vygotsky’s theory explicitly emphasizes children’s learning through play. Play has been demonstrated to be central to the theory since it could be used to change from one stage of the child’s development to the other. It enables learners to interact socially and learn most specifically cognition at the same time. Play in Vygotsky’s theory merely provides an arena for children’s intellectual needs to become more mature (Lambert, 2000). It enables learners to be creative and to enjoy their learning activities (John-Steiner, Connery & Marjanovic-Shane, 2010).