CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.15 Factors Affecting Training Effectiveness
2.15.1 Trainees Characteristics
Trainee characteristics are through self-efficacy, goal orientation, motivation to learn (Tziner, et al., 2007) and learner readiness and intention to learn (Baldwin & Ford, 1988). It is important to identify individual characteristics of trainees that have an impact on training transfer as indicated earlier in this chapter to measure the effectiveness of a training program, transfer of training must have occurred. Different researchers that understanding the personal characteristics of trainees plays a significant and central role in the learning process, not much training research in the past two decades has included individual differences as an essential determinant of learning and behavioural change (Baldwin & Ford, 1988; Colguitt, Lepine & Noe 2000; Noe, 1986). However, despite this awareness of the critical role that trainee’s characteristics play in the training process, numerous gaps in the literature exist. Training institutions have focused limited attention on assessing the individual characteristics, and their learning before the training intervention (Colquitt
58 | P a g e et al., 2000). Holton et al. (2000) identified a wide range of trainees’ characteristics that may directly influence training transfer, such as (cognitive, psychomotor, and physical ability constructs). The most popular trainee characteristics variables which have been identified and examined in the past research are cognitive ability, self-efficacy, locus of control, motivation, perceived job utility and career utility (Baldwin & Ford, 1988). According to Ma (2018), trainee characteristics consist of the individual’s ability, motivation, and personality factors. The results of the study conducted by Paulsen and Kauffeld (2016) on investigating the relationship between positive affection experienced within training and motivation to transfer found a relationship between positive affection and motivation to transfer. This finding means that positive affection experienced by trainees is essential for the successful transfer of training. Similarly, supervisor support, peer support, and transfer motivation are significant predictors of training transfer (Massenberg et al., 2015).
Self-efficacy reflects people’s beliefs in their capabilities to conduct a particular task, influences initial behaviour, and enhances individual motivation to devote additional effort (Seo & Ilies, 2009). In other words, people who display self-efficacy hold strong beliefs in their capabilities to perform actions even when facing unpleasant situations. Saito and Miwa (2007) reflection is a cognitive ability that plays a critical role in training effectiveness. (Seo & Ilies, 2009) postulate that trainees with high critical thinking skills can adjust their cognitive processes, and reflect their training experiences during the training sessions. Trainees’ reflections about the training experience during the training session is of the essence.
In their study, Lin et al. (2015) found that timely instructor interventions and continuous interactions with trainees strengthen the learning outcomes and the understanding of the training content, which promotes the trainees’ self-efficacy. As a result, trainees are willing to devote additional effort to learning and exhibit increased determination in continuing with the training as well as attempting challenging learning tasks. The characteristics aspect of trainees such as cognitive ability, self-efficacy, motivation, personality, perceived utility, career/job variables and locus of control have been identified to affect training transfer and ultimately training effectiveness (Ma, 2018). The study by Tortop (2014), in examining the effectiveness of the in-service training in Turkey, found teachers’ self-efficacy to be positively correlating to their positive attitudes
59 | P a g e towards the training. The literature suggests that specific trainee characteristics, relating either to personality or motivation, have a direct influence on training transfer and outcomes of the training.
Ma (2018), found some trainees who did not want to apply what they learned from the training on the job for monopoly and competitiveness edge, and this hindered the transfer of training.
Furthermore, the results of the study indicate that individuals’ attitudes toward training influenced their judgment about the purpose of training, which impacted the application of the training content. In other words, a negative attitude toward training impeded the transfer of training Ma et al. (2018). The results further showed that trainees’ self-efficacy influenced training transfer.
“When the trainees felt confident and self-assured about applying learned abilities on their jobs and could conquer the obstacles that hindered the use of leaned knowledge and skills, a positive transfer might happen” (Ma et al., 2018, p. 4). In exploring the different factors contributing to the effectiveness of training, Yaqoot et al. (2017) found trainee motivation to have a more substantial influence on training effectiveness as compared to the training environment. The findings by Yaqoot et al. (2017) suggest that motivated trainees are most likely to transfer what they have learned back in their workplace.
Ghofranipour et al. (2018) in their pilot study to evaluate the effectiveness of training on improving communication between the medical interns and patients found that interns with high scores of self- efficacy, and knowledge were useful in improved communication. Furthermore, the results of the study found providing feedback to the interns (trainees) on their practice from the peers to be a motivating factor of improved communication. Moreover, the findings confirmed that medical students performed well within their courses which they received the training from, however, transferring the skills back on the job did not occur (Ghofranipour et al., 2018)
2.15.1.2 Trainee Readiness
Trainee readiness represents the characteristics of individuals. The concept of trainee readiness relates to integrated control theory. The integrated theory explains that trainees should be voluntarily and ready to participate in training for learning and skills transfer (Muhammad et al., 2014). In the earlier study by Facteau et al. (1995), trainees who perceived the training to be useful and helpful to the career development showed the most likelihood and readiness for learning new
60 | P a g e skills. In other words, training perceived to be contributing to career development can influence the readiness of trainees to learn. Stephen (2008) in his study to measure learner readiness in terms of knowledge retention, motivation to learn and application of skill, found learning transfers to be higher amongst trainees who were confident and motivated about sustaining the new skills. Put merely, trainees who know the training program and motivated to apply their newly learned skills, are more likely to transfer their learning back on the job.
Kirwan and Birchall (2006) in their study to test the Holton’s model of training transfer found the transfer motivation and trainees ’self-efficacy to have a positive correlation with the trainee readiness, transfer design, perceived content validity, and opportunity to apply the new skills back in the workplace. It is for this reason that the individual characteristics of trainees towards training effectiveness were considered to be essential factors worth exploring in this study. This research proposes trainees’ age, occupation in the NPO, qualifications level and years of experience as trainee characteristics that might affect the effectiveness of training. In the study by Kirwan and Birchall (2006), trainee readiness exerted a significant effect on training effectiveness. As a result, they proposed that the readiness of trainees to learn new skills directly affects motivation to transfer skills back in the workplace. Diversity of trainees’ demographic characteristics have been studied with regards to transferring learning acquired from the training back on the job. The related personal characteristics such as age, experience, gender and qualifications, with the trainees’
ability to acquire and transfer new skills and knowledge were investigated (Walsh & Magley, 2018). Some personal demographics, like education and experience, had a significant positive relationship with learning (Walsh & Magley, 2018).
As stated by Choi, Lee and Jacobs (2015), gender, education level, learning and cognitive style positively affected learning and training transfer which ultimately linked to the training effectiveness. Therefore, for learning to occur and be transferred back on the job, trainee’s characteristics, decisions, preferences, and motivation are essential. In these studies, these trainees’
characteristics were control variables. Sanjeevkumar and Yanan (2011) in their study found, young, highly educated women to be more vulnerable than other women. They further found that trained adult women tend to retire later, suggesting that more knowledgeable and more skills may lead to the ability to stay longer in the professional community. Trainees with higher levels of
61 | P a g e education tend to be more motivated learners and acquire new learning than trainees with lower education levels (Chiaburu & Marinova, 2005). In contrast, the preliminary analyses by Chiaburu, Van Dam and Hutchins (2010), showed no significant relationship between the control variables (age, gender, educational level, organisational tenure, occupation, and job tenure) and transfer of learning back on the job, to training effectiveness. Different researchers showed that understanding the personal characteristics of trainees such as age, experience and qualifications plays a significant and central role in the learning process. However, little research on training has included individual differences as the critical determinants of learning and behavioural change (Baldwin & Ford, 1988).
The most popular trainee characteristics variables which have been identified and examined in the past research are cognitive ability, self-efficacy, locus of control, motivation, perceived job utility and career utility, very little on individual demographic characteristics as possible influencers of training effectiveness has been investigated. The section on trainees ‘characteristics discussed in detail self-efficacy and trainee’ readiness to learn new skills as factors directly affecting the transfer of training. The next section discusses the training environment factors influencing the effectiveness of training programmes.