2.3 PREDICTORS OF TRAINING OUTCOMES
2.3.5 The Transfer of Training
Gumuseli et al (2002:81), define the transfer of training as, " the process of the
implementation of knowledge, skill, attitude and other qualities acquired in the training programme into the workplace." Janove (2002:99), confirms this point by describing the transfer of training as being the lessons learnt during training being translated into on-the-job behaviour.
Transfer of training can either be positive or negative. Positive transfer of training means that the initial training promotes intended job performance and negative transfer of training
implies that the training does not produce the intended job performance (van der Klink et al, 2001:53). Gumuseli et al (2002:81), considers transfer of training to fall into three categories, i.e. (a) positive transfer, which could in increased productivity and effectiveness, (b) negative transfer, which could result in decreased motivation or a decline in performance or (c) there might be no change - zero transfer.
In understanding the aspects that influence the process of the transfer of training, Clarke (2002:149), puts forward the Baldwin and Ford Transfer of Training Model. This model looks at the following aspects:
(i) training inputs which includes the following (a) trainee characteristics examines aspects such as ability, personality and motivation, (b) training design looks at aspects such as the principles of learning, sequencing of learning and the training content, and (c) work environment considers aspects such as support within the work environment and the opportunity to use the skills learnt,
(ii) training outputs considers the manner in which skills are learned and retained, which in turn is directly influenced by trainee characteristics, training design and the work environment, and
(iii) conditions of transfer looks into aspects of generalisation and maintenance, which refers to applying the material learned in training on the job and maintaining the skills learned over a period of time.
The above model indicates that the transfer of training follows a systematic approach of training inputs which go through a training process and generate a training output which in
turn has to be maintained over a period of time. The inputs refer to individuals' personal attributes, the design of the training and the work environment in which the training is to take place. The outputs refer to the degree of learning and retention that has taken place. The learning that has taken place needs to be applied on the job and has to be maintained over a period of time.
Olsen Jr (1998:62), identifies the following variables as influencing the transfer of training:
(i) similarity between training and the ultimate task, (ii) the amount of skills practice,
(iii) training simulations that will closely match the actual work setting, and
(iv) feedback on how the skill is being performed and how facilitation on the job helps the trainee.
Gumuseli et al (2002:82) state that leadership qualities of managers have a significant impact on the transfer of acquired knowledge to the work environment. Investigations reveal that the support provided by managers before training, during training and after training contributes to the positive transfer of training and the spin-off is increased productivity, effectiveness and job satisfaction (Gumuseli et al, 2002:82).
Desimone et al (2002:93), identify the following aspects that will improve the transfer of training back to the workplace:
(i) develop clearly stated learning objectives,
(ii) maximise the similarity between the training situation and the job situation, (iii) provide ample opportunity during training to practise the task,
(iv) use a variety of examples, including both positive and negative models of intended behaviour,
(v) identify and label important features of a task,
(vi) make sure trainees understand the general principles,
(vii) provide support back in the work environment, including clear goals, measurement and rewards for using the new behaviours, and
(viii) provide ample opportunity to perform what is learned back on the job.
Goldstein (1993:131) views the transfer-climate issue as being important to the effective transfer of training in that the degree of positive transfer climate affects the degree to which
learned behaviour is transferred onto the job, independent of the degree to which trainees had learned in the training programme.
According to Goldstein (1993:41) research shows that employees who operate in a situation where a more positive transfer climate exists in terms of influencing trainees to use what they have learned and rewarding trainees for doing so, demonstrated more transfer behaviour onto the job.
Another important issue with regard to transfer-climate is the identification of high-risk situations that the trainee would face and the need to develop coping mechanism to deal with such situations. This is illustrated by the following example: if one of the problems is increased stress resulting from time pressure then coping skills such as time management should be introduced. Such coping mechanisms result in increased self-efficacy and decrease the probability of relapses in newly learned behaviour (Goldstein, 1993:131).
Khoza (1999:28), identifies the following factors which hinder the effective transfer of training:
(i) lack of reinforcement on the job to support trainees in applying training to their jobs,
(ii) interference from the immediate work environment in the form of work and time pressures, insufficient authority, ineffective work processes and inadequate equipment, which limit the transfer of knowledge and skills to the work place,
(iii) the lack of active support by the organisational culture or climate to facilitate the transfer of skills to the workplace,
(iv) trainees believe that training programmes are impractical or irrelevant to their needs and proposed changes would cause them undue comfort and extra effort, (v) trainees experience a loss of motivation when they are separated from the inspirational presence or support of a trainer,
(vi) trainees have perceptions that the training programmes were poorly designed and delivered, and
(vii) trainees experience pressure from work peers not to transfer training back to the workplace.
Organisations have a major role to play in facilitating the transfer of skills to the workplace.
A lack of support from supervisors to facilitate the transfer of skills to the workplace and an
unsupportive work environment play a major role in hindering the effective transfer of training. Negative trainee perceptions about the training programme, low trainee motivation and intimidation from peers not to transfer skills to the workplace are some the factors from a trainee perspective that hinder the effective transfer of training.
It is also important that the skills acquired through training are retained. The next section deals with skills retention.