Chapter 3: An overview of indigenisation and economic empowerment
3.3 Theories of affirmative action and social justice
3.3.5 Utilitarianism
The theory of utilitarianism may be defined simply as those actions that provide "the greatest good for the greatest number”. Jeremy Bentham, James Mill, John Austin and John Stuart Mill led the discussion and submitted that the real test of morality and justice comes from how practical and useful it is to society. Bentham considered it to be a guiding principle; a call to action for both individuals and governments to provide the highest amount of satisfaction to the largest number of citizens.
These theorists suggested that utilitarianism may be best understood from two perspectives: act and rule utilitarianism. According to act utilitarianism, society should always select behaviour that will result in the highest amount of satisfaction. According to Mill (1863:10) an action under act utilitarianism becomes morally right when it is accompanied by more pleasure than pain. Rule utilitarianism on the other hand contends that society should decipher what sort of actions are most likely to result in satisfaction and cohesion and turn them into a set of rules. The concept of rule utilitarianism tests an action and only conforms to it if it results in the greatest good or outcome for the majority.
The principle of utility dictates that any action is approved or disapproved according to its clear potential to augment or diminish happiness for the person whose interest is at stake; or to put it differently, if it encourages or opposes that happiness (Bentham, 1781:14). Accordingly, these theorists believe that whatever is worthless, painful, unpleasant, immoral or unfair ought to be changed or improved upon to serve the interests of the greatest number of citizens (Jatava, 1998).
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As poverty remains one of the most significant challenges in Africa, the utilitarian test would be passed by measures that alleviate poverty and improve the well-being of the majority of its citizens (Kamusoko, 2019:84). Based on this assertion, a policy such as indigenisation may be considered from a utilitarianism perspective as being aligned with the upliftment of citizens thereby providing the most satisfaction for the largest number of local citizens. Because utilitarianism seeks to maximise happiness for the largest number of people, indigenisation is seen as a policy that prepares governments to focus on catering for the economic prosperity of its previously impoverished citizens.
According to Kamusoko (2019:14), this is an economic approach derived from the utilitarian ethics, with the goal of domesticating capitalism for the advantage of the majority. Although this may seem like an oxymoron, it is prudent to realise that the establishment of a domesticated capitalist system has positive consequences as fortunes generated as a result of any overflow or surplus would be beneficial for the majority, as argued by Little (2002:40).
These and other theories of social justice serve to illustrate the need to correct societal injustice through whatever means. Table 3.1 below provides the conclusion and main insights from the theories that have been discussed above. These theories of affirmative action and social justice may be used collectively or uniquely to explain and justify the enactment of indigenisation and economic policies by countries. This is supported by Nel (2011: 11) who states that these theories are “regularly invoked as tools of interpretation and justification of affirmative action policy and legislation”. Society is therefore convinced to take actions that that are necessary to redress social and economic inequality and injustice.
Table 3.1 Insights from theories of affirmative action and social justice Theories of affirmative
action and social justice
Insight for study
Existentialism Individuals should have unrestricted freedom in pursuit of those actions that allow them to develop to their fullest potential.
Marxism
Society has an important role to play in its liberation from all aspects of tyranny and oppression and in so doing eradicate all individualistic elements or capitalism.
Rawls social justice Each individual should be afforded basic rights which allow him or her to become an active member of society.
Ambedkarism Resources should be shared equally to all within a community regardless of their status.
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Utilitarianism Actions should be perused to offer the greatest potential to the majority within a given community.
Source: Created by the researcher (2022)
These theories influence different aspects of indigenisation and economic empowerment. They provide knowledge and a foundation upon which governments plan and implement their policies.
The theories presented above provide a blend of key concepts and theoretical models that have been developed over generations to support the age old problem of social justice. They share similarities in the main tenets of the fight for social justice but may differ in their approach on how this should be achieved with some being more radical than others. Zimbabwe’s struggle for independence was fought under the guidance of Socialist/Marxist ideologies as was done by most African countries who identified closer with the Eastern Bloc in pursuit of liberation against Western colonisers. This theory dictated the early years of independence and shaped the way Zimbabwe would be led.
Context is however important in the formulation of policies and as the environmental conditions change (for example, globalisation, the collapse of socialism, the resurgence of neoliberalism, the emergence of sustainability thinking), so too does the strict adherence to ideologies. In addition, Cerna (2013:7) convincingly states that countries “change policies by learning from others and hence shifting their beliefs”. Almgren (2017:16) adds that the principles of social justice do not necessarily govern the actions of a particular country. In some cases, governments may decide to enact policies deemed to be unreasonable and pejorative to others, but justifiable within the context of the situation.
Nevertheless, these actions are often taken in the best interest of the country and in pursuit of social justice. The support in the formulation and implementation of policies such as the indigenisation policy in Zimbabwe may, therefore, be seen as a blend of ideological thinking strengthened by policy learning and shifting global trends.
It is without a doubt that racial discrimination and social injustice existed during colonial times and, therefore, governments have been energised not only to politically emancipate their citizens but also to eradicate all previously established socio-economic injustices. Affirmative action is not without its fair share of criticism but remains a fundamental necessity in the quest for equality and justice. It is with this understanding that a consideration of policies that have been enacted are given. A brief reflection on the policies in South Africa and Malaysia is thus presented as examples of economic empowerment initiatives that have been introduced with relative success. As a resource-rich African country that has a legacy of colonisation and Western neo-colonialism, South Africa provides an excellent example to examine economic empowerment. The South African model exemplifies a different approach to economic empowerment, with the government adopting an all-inclusive approach of socio-economic affirmative action, national development, and poverty eradication.
Malaysia on the other hand, offers similarities with the Zimbabwean model in that foreign
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shareholding is regulated by law. The Malaysian model has seen the country develop into an industrial powerhouse having achieved its economic empowerment goals in the early 90s.