CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 71
4.11 Validity and Reliability 83
diversity of research participants through techniques such as photo-elicitation and interviewing. Rose (2008) further explains that photographs can be active players in the construction of a wide range of different kinds of geographical knowledge as they can be used for representation, evocation, as material culture and for illustrating what environmental problems look like.
The study borrows from photographing as a research method to illustrate various environmental problems that the focus groups identified in the community. Through several interventions the study showed visual representations of what the areas were like and to track environmental changes through several before and after photographs (Rose, 2008).
During stage 3 PSGT were required to take photographs and write a short narrative of the image captured on the photo. Photographs evoke meaning and reflections as well as information and factual data. They catch the texture, the mood, the atmosphere, and the ‘feel’ of real life environmental problems. They carry documentary and interpretive meaning, either posed or natural (Cohen et al., 2011). In photo-elicitation technique, the photography or set of photographs or sequence of photographs are used to invoke, prompt and promote discussion, reflections, comments, observations and memories (Banks, 2007). In this study the pre-service geography teachers studied environmental challenges through ELT and PAR and developed photo narratives based on their experiences in groups.
4.10.3.2. Reflective diary
A reflective diary is a tool that allows people to give an in-depth understanding of their learning experiences, as it allows for introspection and critical reflection on learning experiences encountered (Keke , 2008). In this context groups identified, implemented, evaluated and reflected on each intervention. These are in keeping with the constructs of ELT and PAR.
Each of the four groups was given a template that they used to document reflections based on their learning of EE (see Appendix 8). Some of the aspects participants reflected on were framed as questions.
4.11.1 Validity
According to Cohen et al. (2011) validity is the extent to which the research findings accurately represent what is really happening in the situation, in other words, whether the instruments explore what is actually intended. Moskal, Leydens and Pavelich (2002, p. 7) define validity as “the degree to which the evidence supports that the interpretations of data are correct and the manner in which interpretations used are appropriate”. This study addressed validity in many ways. Firstly, the instruments were verified by fellow researchers in the Faculty of Education at the Lowveld University to check for accuracy in order to enhance validity of instruments as methods for data generation. In this study photo narratives, reflective diary, focus group interviews and a questionnaire were used to capture pre-service geography teachers’ experiences and learning of Environment Education. These tools allowed for data to be triangulated, as indicated below in Figure 17.
Figure 17 Diagrammatic representation of “triangulation” Adapted from Waters (2006) cited by Check & Schutt (2011, p. 267)
According to Creswell (2012, p. 259) “Triangulation is the process of corroborating evidence from different individuals, types of data or methods of data collection in description and themes in qualitative research”.
Similar patterns are derived from data obtained from various methods, which brings greater precision and trustworthiness (ibid). Gray (2014) as well as Flick, Kardorff and Steinke, (2008) contends that for most
qualitative approaches, credibility is improved by and even guaranteed by triangulation, a cross validation strategy, that combines data drawn from sources at different times, in different places or from different people. The information that emerged from the multiple methods of data collection was as a result of the 20 pre-service geography teachers’ construction of knowledge. “Active involvement through thought- provoking experiences and peer collaboration” (Tuckman & Monetti, 2011, p. 312) gave rise to the themes that provided answers to the research questions. Through collaboration and interactions knowledge was constructed.
Additionally, validity was also increased by requesting participants to read or listen to interview transcripts to verify the accuracy of data captured. According to Hancock and Algozzin,(2016); Ejimabo (2015) and Wentz (2016) this is referred to this as member checks, whereby data collected from participants and its tentative interpretations are taken back to the participants to see if the interpretations are plausible or ring true. Furthermore, in this study data were collected over a long enough period of time (12 months) to ensure an in-depth understanding of the phenomenon (Hancock & Algozzin, 2016; Ejimabo, 2015; Wentz, 2016) and this was also applied to photo narratives and reflective diaries where an environmental challenge was resolved after several interventions.
4.11.2 Reliability
Reliability is concerned with the findings of the research and relates to the credibility of the findings (Welman, Kruger & Mitchell, 2005, p. 145). Reliability is concerned with the question of the extent to which one’s findings would be found again. According to Joppe (2000) and Chege (2011), reliability is about how consistent the results are when the experiment is repeated a number of times under the same methodological conditions; with greater consistency the instrument is said to be reliable. The findings of this study were credible because a number of data collection tools were used and thus data were compared across each other (questionnaire, focus group interviews and a report on the portfolio of evidence), peer examined and audit trailed where the researcher described in detail how data were collected and what emerging trends are evident. Joppe (2002) suggests that the audit trail should be detailed so that other researchers can use the study as further evidence or as an operating manual by which to replicate the study.